LIBRARY

STAT^ TEACWER'S CrV ^"^
SAJtTA BARBARA. CALlFuRfJlA

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SUPPLEMENTARY EDUCATIONAL MONOGRAPHS

Puhliahed in conjunction with
THE SCHOOL REVIEW and THE ELEMENTARY SCHOOL JOURNAL

No. 22 June 1922

REMEDIAL CASES IN READING:

THEIR DIAGNOSIS AND

TREATMENT

9112 3

REMEDIAL CASES IN READING:

THEIR DIAGNOSIS AND

TREATMENT

By
WILLIAM SCOTT GRAY

with the co-operation of

DELIA KIBBE LAURA LUCAS

LAWRENCE WILLIAM MILLER

THE UNIVERSITY OF CHICAGO

CHICAGO, ILLINOIS

Copyright 1922 By
The University of Chicago

All Rights Reserved

Published June 1922

SANTA BARBARl«k. t.«>-

\3-

6

ACKNO WLED GMENT

The studies which are reported in this monograph were made possible
by an appropriation from the Commonwealth Fund. This appropria-
tion made it possible to provide the expert assistance and the testing
materials which were necessary in making diagnoses of remedial cases
and in providing appropriate instruction.

TABLE OF CONTENTS

CBAPTER PAGE

I. Introduction i

II. Significant T\tes of Remedial Cases and Causes of Failure
IN Reading 6

III. Methods Emi>lo\'ed in the Stltdy of Individual Cases . . 23

I\'. PiTiLS Who Had Made Little or No Progress in Learning

TO Read 39

v. Pupils Who Encountered Serious Difficulties in Inter-
pretation 62

VI. Pupils Who Encountered Difficulties Primarily in the

Mechanics of Reading 91

\'IL Pupils Who Encountered Difficulties in Rate of Silent

Reading 130

VIII. Pupils Who Were Weak in Practically All Phases of

Reading 151

IX. Diagnostic and Remedial Studies in a City School System . 188

Index 205

CIL\PTER I

INTRODUCTION
A SIGNIFICANT ILLUSTR.\TION

Two years ago it was found necessary for a fourth-grade boy to
discontinue regular school work because of inability to read. His
deficiency was so marked that his father feared for a time he would have
to give up school work altogether. In the study which was made of his
case it was found that he had never learned to move his eyes with speed
and accuracy from the end of one line to the beginning of the next.
Furthermore, he did not move his eyes regularly from left to right
along the printed lines. At times the first fixation was near the end of
the line; frequently it was near the middle; and sometimes it was
near the beginning. The remaining fixations were irregular and followed
no definite order.

Drill exercises which differed from ordinary printed material in two
respects were prepared for use in establishing effective eye-movements.
The lines were typewritten an inch apart to aid in developing accurate
return sweeps from the end of one line to the beginning of the next.
In order to develop regular movements of the eyes from left to right
along the lines, three sets of exercises were prepared in which the spacings
between words were wider than in ordinary print. In the first exercises,
unrelated words were typewritten five letter-spaces apart. The boy
was required to read these words in regular order for five minutes each
day. After considerable progress had been made in the fluent recogni-
tion of unrelated words, a simple story was t\'pewritten with five letter-
spaces between words. After completing ten exercises of this type
the words were grouped in thought units which were separated by five
letter-spaces. Finally stories were read from books during the drill
periods. The fluency and accuracy with which he soon read indicated
that the graded exercises and the constructive suggestions which accom-
panied them had eliminated at least two of his major diflSculties. Other
problems, such as increasing the span of recognition and the development
of independence in the recognition of words, were then undertaken.
At the end of four months the boy was permitted to resume regular
work with his class. One year later he was carrying fifth-grade work
ver\' successfully.

2 REMEDI.\L CASES IN READING

This case has been described at length because it is an excellent
illustration of the fact that regular classroom instruction frequently
fails to provide adequately for pupils who encounter unusual difficulties
in reading. There are thousands of boys and girls in school each year
who make little or no progress because of inaccuracies and personal
handicaps which could be eliminated. These disabilities result in
discouragement, retardation, and elimination in far too many cases.
Society recognizes clearly that children differ widely in native endowment
and learning capacity; it insists, however, that schools utilize every
means possible to provide the most effective instruction for each child.
If teachers meet this obligation successfully, they must make systematic
detailed studies of the reading dif&culties of children and they must
provide appropriate remedial instruction. The importance of such a
program is emphasized by a second illustration.

NEED OF CLASSROOM STUDIES OF READING DIFFICULTIES

Two fourth-grade pupils who were failing in their school work
recently made equally low scores in a comprehension test. The same
remedial exercises were given to them on the assumption that they
encountered similar difficulties. At the end of four weeks they were
tested again with little or no evidence of improvement. The suggestion
was offered that a careful study be made of the errors which they made
in reading in order to determine more accurately the nature of their
specific difficulties. Accordingly, oral- and silent-reading tests were
given and detailed records were kept of the errors made in class exer-
cises.

A study of the information which was secured showed clearly that
their difficulties were very different in character. Pupil A read fluently,
but did not direct his attention to the content of what he read and
consequently failed notably in interpretation. Pupil B, on the other
hand, encountered numerous word difficulties and read very slowly.
Because the problem of recognition required so much attention, he was
unable to make a creditable record in comprehension. For a period of
four weeks these pupils were given special remedial exercises. Pupil A
was required to find the answers to specific questions, to select the impor-
tant points of paragraphs, to reproduce what he read, and to follow
directions. Pupil B, on the other hand, was given exercises in word
analysis, in rapid recognition, and in grouping words in thought units.
When the pupils were tested again each scored relatively high in com-
prehension.

INTRODUCTION 3

This illustration is significant because it shows clearly that a teacher
must know more than the fact that a pupil ranks low in a reading test
or fails in the preparation of an assignment in history. She will be able
to improve the quality of his reading only when she knows the specific
nature of his difficulty and provides appropriate remedial instruction.
This implies that teachers should scrutinize the work of their pupils
with great care, should give tests frequently, should record facts daily,
and should provide instruction to meet the needs of pupils who encounter
difficulties. The importance of these steps has been so widely recognized
during recent years that they have been adopted as a part of the routine
of instruction in many classrooms.

RECENT PROGRESS IN REMEDIAL INSTRUCTION

During the last year more than thirty cities have made detailed
reports of diagnostic and remedial studies. Progressive teachers and
supervisors of many other cities have reported that they have given a
considerable amount of time to remedial instruction. The significant
results secured in such cities as Stoughton, Wisconsin, Rochester, New
York, and Seattle, Washington, furnish convincing evidence of the value
of such work. In order to provide classroom teachers with expert help,
several cities have established educational clinics where detailed
diagnostic studies are made and have also pros^ided special rooms where
remedial instruction is given. Other cities, of which Los Angeles,
California, is an excellent illustration, have given considerable attention
to the development of materials of instruction appropriate for different
types of cases. These constructive steps are very important inasmuch
as the problems of group instruction are so numerous that classroom
teachers find it impossible, without expert assistance, to give adequate
attention to pupils who are seriously retarded in reading.

PROBLEMS FOR SOLUTION

Wherever diagnostic and remedial studies have been undertaken,
four problems have been encoui^red which are in urgent need of
solution. In the first place, there is need of specific information concern-
ing important types of remedial cases. Detailed descriptions of the
characteristics of the various types will help teachers to recognize more
quickly and to classify more accurately the pupils under their instruction
who encounter difficulties in reading. In the second place, there is
need of detailed information concerning appropriate instruction for
remedial cases. In this connection methods of teaching and drill

4 REMEDIAL CASES IN READING

devices are needed which will enable teachers to give remedial instruction
economically and effectively. In the third place, the technique of
diagnosis should be developed in greater detail ; it should be refined to
the point of accuracy and precision ; and it should be simphfied sufficiently
to enable teachers to make frequent studies of individual cases. Finally,
there is urgent need for teachers who are thoroughly trained to engage
in diagnostic and remedial work effectively. A clear realization of the
significance of these problems has recently stimulated investigators to
make detailed studies of difficulties encountered by pupils in reading.

PURPOSE OF THIS INVESTIGATION

The series of experiments ^hich are reported in this monograph
were undertaken with three major purposes in mind: (a) to discover as
many types of remedial cases -in reading as time and resources would
permit; (b) to determine the causes and distinguishing characteristics
of each type; and (c) to develop appropriate methods of remedial
instruction in each case. Although considerable attention was given to
the technique of diagnosis, the causes of unusual difficulties in reading
and appropriate remedial measures received most consideration. Use
was made in many cases of methods of diagnosis which have been
reported in previous investigations. These methods were supplemented
by others which were planned specifically for use in this investigation.

MAJOR STEPS IN THE INVESTIGATION

The pursuit of this investigation has involved four distinct steps,
(i) A summary was prepared of the remedial cases which have been
published and which were submitted by superintendents, supervisors,
and teachers. (2) Plans were organized for diagnosing individual cases
and for carrying on remedial instruction. (3) Twenty-seven pupils
who encountered unusual difficulties in reading were studied at or near
the University of Chicago for the purpose of securing detailed information
concerning remedial cases. In this connection the writer was assisted
in the diagnoses by Miss Laura Lucas and Miss Deha Kibbe, members
of the Faculty of the Elementary School of the University of Chicago,
and by Mr. L, W. Miller, a graduate student. The remedial instruction
was given entirely by these co-operators with the aid of such advice as
the writer was able to give them as he observed their teaching. (4)
Studies were made of twenty-six retarded pupils in Toledo, Ohio, for
the purpose of determining effective methods of organizing and directing
diagnostic and remedial work in cities. Permission to undertake this

INTRODUCTION 5

work in Toledo was secured through the courtesy of Superintendent
Charles S. Meek. The diagnoses were made with the co-operation of
Miss Estaline Wilson, Assistant Superintendent of Schools, Miss Florence
E. Hawkins, Primary Supervisor, and Miss Flora Nettleman, Inter-
mediate Grade Supervisor. The remedial work was carried on by ten
special teachers under the direction of Miss Wilson.

The four major steps of the investigation will be discussed in detail
in subsequent chapters in the order in which they have been outlined.

CHAPTER II

SIGNIFICANT TYPES OF REMEDIAL CASES AND CAUSES OF FAILURE

IN READING

The purpose of this chapter is to describe briefly five significant
types of remedial cases in reading and fourteen causes of failure which
have been reported in previous investigations. Such descriptions were
of great value in recognizing and classifying many of the remedial
cases which are reported in later chapters.

SOURCES OF INFORMATION

The sources of information for this summary were (a) published
reports of diagnostic and remedial cases and (b) descriptions which were
received from more than thirty school systems. The studies which have
been published were made in university laboratories, educational clinics,
and elementary-school classrooms. The following illustrations describe
typical conditions under which the investigations were carried on. (i)
Miss Katherine McLaughlin, while working in the laboratories of the
School of Education, the University of Chicago, studied individual cases
through the use of tests and an elaborate apparatus for photographing
eye-movements. As soon as specific difficulties were discovered, remedial
instruction was given, and the results were determined through careful,
scientific measurements. (2) Dr. Clara Schmitt, of the Department
of Child Welfare of the Chicago public schools, made clinical studies of
individual cases, referred them to special teachers for remedial instruc-
tion, and determined the progress which had been made at various times
during the training period. (3) Superintendent C. J. Anderson and
Miss Elda Merton made at Stoughton, Wisconsin, several very interest-
ing diagnostic studies through the use of standardized tests. After
specific difficulties had been determined, remedial instruction was given
by classroom teachers. These studies are of very great value because
they show clearly that diagnostic and remedial work can be carried on
effectively in city systems.

The second source of information included reports of cases which
were received from school officers. In the spring of 192 1 a reprint of
an article' entitled, "The Diagnostic Study of an Individual Case in

'William S. Gray, "The Diagnostic Study of an Individual Case in Reading,"
Elementary School Journal, XXI (April, 1921), 577-94.

SIGNIFICANT TYPES AND CAUSES OF FAILURE 7

Reading" was sent to eight hundred superintendents, principals, and
supervisors in various sections of the country, with a request for descrip-
tions of remedial cases under their supervision. Fifty descriptive
reports were received from thirty school systems. These reports included
a wide variety of interesting types, many of which will be reported in
later sections of this chapter.

NATURE OF REPORTS AND DESCRIPTIONS

The descriptions of remedial cases which are available can be classified
into two distinctly different groups. In some descriptions the phase or
phases of reading in which difficulty occurred was emphasized. The
following titles are significant in this connection: ''A Sixth-Grade Boy
Who Cannot Read Primer Material Fluently"; "A Fluent Oral Reader
in the Fourth Grade Who Comprehends Very Little Read Silently";
"The Rapid Reader Who Neglects Details." In other descriptions
the specific cause of failure was emphasized, as indicated by the following
titles: "A Third-Grade Boy Who Was Unable to Read Orally Because
of Defective Vision"; "The Foreign Child Who Is Handicapped in
Third-Grade Reading Because of a Meager Vocabulary"; "An Analyt-
ical Study of a Case of Alexia." In the summary which follows general
types of remedial cases are presented first. These are followed by
descriptions of specific causes of failure in reading. Each case is
described briefly with emphasis on its most significant characteristics.
No attempt was made to include descriptions of all cases which have
been reported. A very careful selection was made, however, in order
to present a wide variety of different t^-pes.

GENERAL TYPES OF REMEDIAL CASES

There are striking differences in the accomplishments of children
who encounter difficulties in reading. Some read intelligently but very
slowly; others read rapidly but fail to give adequate attention to the
content of what is read; still others can understand anything they are
able to read, but encounter serious difficulty in recognizing words. A
complete list of these cases would be of great value to a teacher in
recognizing and classifying pupils who encounter serious reading dif-
ficulties. The list which follows is complete because it is based entirely
on cases which have been reported. As investigation continues it will
no doubt be possible to add other significant types to the Ust.

Case I: A third-grade boy who was seriously retarded in all phases of
reading. — Pupils in each grade, including the high school, have been
reported as notably weak in all phases of reading accomplishment.

8 REMEDIAL CASES IN READING

They are discovered most frequently in the third and fourth grades
because their difficulties in reading begin to interfere at that time with
their progress in other subjects. In some cases the causes of their
difficulties are evident, such as poor eyesight, low native intelligence,
or poor instruction; in other cases, the causes of unsatisfactory progress
are difficult to determine. The case which is reported in the following
paragraph was submitted by J. F. Robinson, Nims School, Muskegon,
Michigan, and describes weaknesses in all phases of reading.

This ten-year-old boy was so retarded in reading that he was classified as
a medium first-grade reader although his assignment was for the third grade.
His reading was monotonous, jerky, and colorless, lacking any evidence of
fluency and intelligent interpretation. The rudimentary reading habits
apparently had not been formed effectively. The remedial problem was to
determine a new starting-point and to awaken keen interest in reading. There-
fore, simple exercises in a first reader were assigned. The aim was to develop
fluency. When the second reader was begun, blackboard work was introduced
as an aid in thought getting. The sentences which were used were carefully
chosen. They proved very helpful in developing confidence and in making
him an intelligent fluent reader. When a third reader was introduced,
blackboard work was discontinued and silent reading substituted. As
soon as he was able to read to himself effectively, supplementary readers,
short stories, and library books were provided. His progress was very rapid
after he began to read extensively.

Case II: A fluent oral reader in the fourth grade who comprehended
nothing read silently} — Pupils frequently learn to recognize words
fluently and accurately and to express themselves satisfactorily in oral
reading without understanding the content of the passages read. This
is due to various causes, such as failure to direct attention to the content,
lack of interest and attention, a limited meaning vocabulary, a narrow
background of experience, ineffective habits of thinking, low native
intelHgence, or poor instruction. Whatever the cause may be, this type
of case presents a serious problem because progress in other subjects
will be retarded until intelligent habits of reading have been estabhshed.
The following case is a good illustration of failure to develop the habit
of reading for content.

This fourth-grade girl was described by her teacher as slow and indifferent .
In the Gray Oral Reading Test she made a score of 41.25 which is 5.75 below
the standard for fourth-grade pupils. In the silent-reading test she read
slowly and was unable to reproduce what she read or to answer questions.
"To discover if mechanics of reading was causing the difficulty, she was asked

^ C. J. Anderson and Elda Merton, "Remedial Work in Reading," Elementary
School Journal, XX (May, 1920), 687-92.

SIGNIFICANT TYPES AND CAUSES OF FAILURE 9

to read the same material orally. She read fluently and with expression at

the rate of i.oi words per second, making only four errors " After

studying the case carefully the following conclusion was reached in regard to
her difliculties. " Knowledge of the rudimentary mechanics permitted her to
read material far beyond her comprehension. She read words as names and
not as symbols of ideas. The problem was plainly that of training her to
read for content."^

Remedial exercises included passages cut from second- and third-grade
readers. The first of a series was very short; each succeeding passage was
somewhat longer and made increasing demands on the reader to get the mean-
ing. The following quotation describes the method which was employed in
directing her attention to the content. "After she had given a reproduction
of the 'story' and had answered a number of specific questions about it, she
was asked to re-read the selection in search of any thoughts she had overlooked
during the first reading. She then gave a second reproduction. This last
reproduction was, no doubt, largely a result of the specific questions. Never-
theless, it was valuable in training the pupil to see the richness of content in
the selection." At the conclusion of the training period the tests showed that
she had improved in both oral and silent reading and that her interpretations
were "fairly efficient."

Case III: A third-grade boy who was relatively strong in ability to
interpret but who was greatly retarded in the mechanics of reading. — This
case is practically the reverse of Case II. It is a very significant type
because pupils who are thus handicapped will be unable to take full
advantage of their powers of interpretation until they have learned to
read fluently. The original report was submitted by Superintendent
W. C. French and Miss Eleanor M. Johnson, Drumright, Oklahoma.
The summary report which follows describes the fundamental lines along
which remedial instruction was organized.

The subject in this case was nine years and nine months old. According
to the Binet-Simon Intelligence Tests his I.Q. was 97. An examination of his
reading accomplishments through the use of oral- and silent-reading tests
showed clearly that he was very weak in the mechanics of reading but relatively
strong in ability to interpret. His specific difficulties were (a) inability to
recognize unfamiliar words, {b) repetitions, due to carelessness, periods of
confusion, and inability to group words, (c) inaccurate return sweeps of the
eyes from the end of one line to the beginning of the next, {d) a limited span
of recognition, and (e) vocalization in silent reading. Remedial instruction
was carried on for two thirty-minute periods each day for a month. Distinct
and different types of exercises were given during each of the daily reading
periods. In the morning an attempt was made (o) to increase his span of
recognition, {b) to increase his ability to recognize words independently and

^ A condensed summary of the original report.

lO REMEDIAL CASES IN READING

accurately, and (c) to assist him in grouping words in thought units. During
the afternoon period exercises were conducted (c) in oral reading to develop
independence in recognizing words fluently, and (b) in silent reading to
increase his rate of reading and also his ability to interpret. The tests at
the end of the training period showed a notable increase in both oral and
silent reading.

Case IV: A fifth-grade boy who read very slowly.^ — Pupils who are
able to recognize words accurately frequently fail to recognize them
quickly or in large units and therefore read very slowly. Group silent-
reading tests show that pupils who make equivalent comprehension
scores differ widely in their rates of reading. This may be due to any
one of a large number of causes, such as difi&culties in recognition or
inaccurate habits of eye-movements. In the case which follows slow
rate of reading was attributed to the fact that the subject recognized a
single word rather than a group of words at each fixation of the eyes.

Frequent tests and observations revealed the fact that this pupil read
very slowly because he recognized words individually rather than in groups.
"In order to provide training in the rapid recognition of groups of words,
eight phrase books were prepared in which a phrase was pasted on each page.
The first book contained ten very simple phrases cut from a primer. Each
succeeding book in the series contained a similar number of longer and more
difficult phrases. The eighth book contained phrases from a sixth reader.
In conducting drill exercises the teacher flashed each page so quickly that the
pupil had time for only one fixation. As soon as a phrase had been expose^
the pupil immediately told what he had seen. A grade of ten was given ^B
each entirely correct response." Fourteen exercises were conducted \|itn
these drill boots. A given book was not discontinued until a score of loo nad
been made in two successive lessons. At the close of each lesson the boy was
assigned a selection from his reader. At the end of a minute he was asked
to indicate how much he had read. His scores showed that his rate of reading
had increased from 60 words per minute on the first day to 105 words per
minute on the fourteenth, which was clear evidence of the effectiveness of the
drill exercises.^

Case V: A rapid reader who neglected details.^ — Many pupils read
very rapidly, neglecting many important details. This results in

'William S. Gray, "Individual Difficulties in Silent Reading in the Fourth,
Fifth, and Sixth Grades," Twentieth Yearbook of the National Society for the Study of
Education, Part II, pp. 48-49.

^ A condensed summary of the original report.

3 Charles H. Judd, Reading: Its Nature and Development, Supplementary Educa-
tional Monographs, II, No. 4 (July, 1918), 160-61.

SIGNIFICANT TYPES AND CAUSES OF FAILURE 1 1

inaccurate oral reading or failure to get all of the significant points in
silent reading. In the case which is here described inaccurate habits
of reading were due to failure to receive systematic training in reading
while the subject was a youth.

The subject finds that he can read familiar matter at a rate as high as
eight words per second. Difficult matter involves more effort and reduces his
rate to two or three words per second. His eye-movements in silent reading
are long, often covering phrases. In oral reading his eye-movements are more
numerous to the line than in the case of most adults and involve many regres-
sive movements. This person is a poor oral reader. He is conscious of
inability to sound new words such as proper names. In silent reading he sees
only the length of the proper name and a few conspicuous letters; he never
gets the details. He learned to read as a child without being taught — picked
up reading, as it is said. He is a poor speller. He is quite irregular in his
mistakes in spelling; this shows that he does not have wrong associations
between sounds and letters but is lacking in stable associations. In mature
years this person substituted a knowledge of the derivation and structure of
words for sound associations. As a result he has improved somewhat in
spelling but is easily confused and is never quite sure that he is right. He
finds that if he must read a passage out loud it is very desirable that he
practice it.

The case is significant for this report chiefly as a warning against the
picking up of the reading habit by children. The danger is that the habits
of seeing words and phrases will get established firmly and will include in some
cases a sufficient vocabulary to remove all disposition to learn the details of
word structure through phonic or letter analysis.

Only five types of cases have been described. Others which differ
only in certain details might have been included. The following titles
are illustrations: "The Slow Reader Who Compensates by Hard Work";
"A Sixth-Grade Boy Who Was Unable to Understand First-Grade
Material"; "A Fourth-Grade Girl Who Was Unable to Apply Phonetic
Training " ; and " A SLxth-Grade Boy Who Confused Many Words Which
Were Similar in Form." These cases were not included in this report
because it seemed advisable to emphasize at this time types of cases
which are distinctly different from each other. It will prove helpful
to teachers who begin diagnostic work to classify poor readers at first
into groups such as the following: (a) poor in all phases of reading;
{b) weak in the mechanics of oral reading; (c) poor in interpretation;
(d) slow in silent reading; and (e) neglect important details. As
investigation continues the number of distinct types will increase and the
characteristics of each will be more fully known.

12 REMEDIAL CASES IN READING

SPECinC CAUSES OF FAILURE IN READING

An effective diagnosis includes more than the determination of the
general type of difSculty which a pupil encounters. The most important
task of anyone who makes a diagnosis is to discover specific causes of
a pupil's disability. McCalP has listed the following "common funda-
mental breeders of ability defects"; insufficient practice; improper
methods of work; deficiency in fundamental skills; absence of interest;
physical defects; and subnormal intelligence,' Although a knowledge
of these general causes of difficulty is valuable it is necessary to carry
a diagnosis far enough to locate specific causes of failure in a particular
phase of reading. For illustratiori>investigations have determined the
following causes of failure in interpretation: inadequate mastery of the
mechanics of reading, a limited meaning vocabulary; a narrow range of
experience; poor habits of thinking; and low native intelligence/

In the summary which follows no attempt has been made to include
all the causes of failure which have been reported or to classify them either
under the five general types of remedial cases, or under the "fundamental
breeders of ability defects" as listed by McCall. Although the advan-
tages of each of these classifications were fully appreciated, neither was
attempted in this chapter because the data available were not sufficiently
detailed or reliable to guarantee a scientific classification. The descrip-
tions which follow are of greatest value in pointing out specific causes
of failure in reading which must be considered in making diagnostic
studies.

INFERIOR LEARNING CAPACITY

The fact is commonly recognized that many mentally defective chil-
dren are unable to learn to read^._- In a large number of schools these
pupils are assigned handwork and constructive occupations of one t5^e
or another in order to train them, if possible, to earn a living. On the
other hand, there are many children of low native intelligence who have
sufficient capacity to learn to read effectively ^ut who fail because
they do not receive appropriate instruction. The following report^
of a second-grade boy who had been in school for several years without
learning to read emphasizes the importance of appropriate classification
and very simple remedial instruction.

' William A. McCall, How to Measure in Education, pp. 109-11. New York:
Macmillan Co., 1922.

^ E. E. Keener, "Use of Measurements in a Small City School System," Journal
of Educational Research, III (March, 1921), 204.

SIGNIFICANT TYPES AND CAUSES OF FAILURE 13

In one second grade the intelligence tests showed that the pupils ranged
from moron to very superior in ability. They were arranged into groups as
homogeneous as possible, taking into account the results of the tests, the
scholarship records, and the judgment of the teacher. The members of the
slowest group learned much more rapidly when taken from the regular classes.
One boy with an I.Q. of 52 had been in school for a number of years without
being able to read at all. In a group where other children were not greatly
superior to him, he learned to read easy material. Until this arrangement
was made the teaching went entirely over his head. On the other hand, the
brightest group did much more than the normal amount of work for the second
grade. Six of the brightest pupils were put into the next higher grade, and
their present success indicates that they will continue to advance at more than
the normal rate.

CONGENITAL WORD BLINDNESS

~- — Some children who are otherwise normally endowed experience
extreme difficulty in learning to recognize printed or written language.
This difficulty has been defined as congenital word blindness, or dyslexia.
It refers to inability to understand and interpret symbols rather than to
inability to see them and is attributed to imperfections or lack of develop-
ment of those areas of the brain which normally serve as centers for
recording images or memories of printed or written symbols,^ The fact
that cases of dyslexia have been found in several generations of the same
family suggests that it is a hereditary trait. The following report^ illus-
trates some of the important characteristics of a somewhat serious case.

L. R. at the first examination, age 9 years, graded 7.8 by the 191 1 Binet,
being retarded 1.2 years (I.Q. 87), and about 8 years by the Seguin form-board,
according to the writer's norms {Psycho-Motor Norms for Practical Diagnosis,
1916, Tables XLVIII and XLIX). At the age of ii.i he graded 9.3 by the
Stanford (or 9.6 by the 191 1 and 9.8 by the 1908 scale), being retarded 1.8
years (I.Q. 84), and about 11.5 by the Seguin. After six years in school (with
frequent absences) he was reported as doing II-2 successfully. He was
reported to be of "slow mentaHty," indifferent, lacking in sustained attention,
and did his best work in arithmetic and poorest in reading and spelling. He
required i' 53" to read to "near" in the Stanford selection (12 words), receiving
aid on six words and read "the" for "three." He was diagnosed as a case of
dyslexia, very backward in intelligence, but not feeble-minded.

In discussing practical suggestions for the school treatment of cases '
of dyslexia Wallin says,

Word-blind children who are not feeble-minded should be assigned to special
reading disability classes, where various methods and devices of teaching

' J. E. W. Wallin, "Congenital Word Blindness — Some Analyses of Cases," The
Training School Bulletin, Vineland, New Jersey (September-October, 1920) p. 3.

14 REMEDIAL CASES IN READING

reading may be tried out. We shall find that some children may be tired out.
We shall find that some children can be reached by certain methods, while
others can be reached by other methods. When it has been shown, however,
that a child cannot be taught to read by the intensive application of various
methods of teaching reading, the school branches should be presented orally.
In fact, one of the advantages of assigning a word-blind child to a reading
disability class is that he may secure from the teacher's lips the instruction
which fits his level of intelligence and which he cannot secure through the
printed page because of his inability to read.

There are wide differences in the character and severity of cases of
dyslexia. For illustration, "Word blindness may affect only letters or
Arabic numerals, or certain groups of letters or figures, or certain
syllables, or whole words or certain groups of words, or certain languages
but not others, . . . ." It has been suggested that such cases are due
to partial interruptions in the connecting fibers between the primary
(apperception) and secondary (memory) brain centers.

In certain cases loss of ability to read takes place through injury or
disease. This is technically known as alexia' and is due to lesions in
the left angular gyrus which is the area of the brain which "has been
fixed upon as the center for recording images or memories of printed
or written words."

POOR AUDITORY MEMORY

— Some pupils are unable to hear at all and must be taught to speak
and to read by methods appropriate for deaf children. Other pupils
hear indistinctly and frequently fail in reading because they are not
seated so they can hear the pronunciation of words clearly. Teachers
should be on the alert for such cases and should provide appropriate seats
and individual instruction to clear up difficulties. A somewhat more
subtle difficulty is failure to remember what has been heard. This
frequently results in inability to remember the sounds of words and
consequently in confusion or even complete failure in reading^ The
following case reported by G. W. Willard, Seattle, Washington, describes
somewhat briefly the unusual technique which was used in securing
improvement in the reading accomplishments of a girl who had poor
auditory memory.

A girl ten years of age, who entered school at six and attended regularly
four different schools, had great difficulty in reading in the second reader.
She was tested at the Child Study Laboratory and found to have normal
mentality, but very poor auditory memory. The child would sound a letter

' Charles H. Judd, op. cit., p. 123.

SIGNIFICANT TYPES AND CAUSES OF FAILURE 15

and call it another letter. The teacher soon found that she had no conception
whatever of phonics, and in fact could not pronounce a word after the teacher
had sounded it. She also had difticulty in making the right sounds. She
evidently had never learned to listen, and various methods were tried but of
no avail until the method used with deaf children was tried. The child would
put her finger tips on the teacher's throat to get the vibrations. By this
method the child got an idea of sound and since she had unusual rhythm,
that was utilized in the phonetic work. Her difficulties were gradually over-
come. She was returned to her grade and at present is having no difficulty.

DEFECTIVE VISION

The fact is recognized that permanent serious defects in vision
frequently preclude the possibility of learning to read. There are,
however, many failures in reading each year caused by defective vision
which could be remedied through the use of appropriate lenses/ The
following description' of a third-grade boy who was unable to score in
oral reading before he was supplied with proper glasses emphasizes the
importance of careful examinations of the eyesight of children who
encounter difficulties in reading.

A third-grade boy was unable to make any score on the Gray Oral Reading
Test. Since he was suspected of being feeble-minded, he was given the Binet
test. This test showed him to be normal mentally; and accordingly further
effort was made to find the cause of his poor reading. His eyes were tested
with the letter chart and seemed normal. When questioned, however, he
reported that the letters looked as if "someone had put a wet blotter on
the book" and blurred them. His eyes were treated and fitted with glasses;
and at the close of one year he scored 39 on the Gray Oral Reading Test.

A NARROW SPAN OE RECOGNITION

A narrow span of recognition, which means the recognition of a very
short unit of a printed line at each fixation of the eyes, frequently
explains slow rates of silent reading and monotonous, inaccurate oral
readings' C. T. Gray^ has made a series of investigations to determine
whether or not the span of recognition can be increased through the use
of short-exposure exercises and speed drills in silent reading. In com-
menting on the results of short-exposure exercises, he makes the following
statements:

It seems that positive results can be obtained if the training is under-
taken as early as the fourth year. In the light of these facts it may be repeated
' E. E. Keener, op. cit., pp. 205-6.

^ C. T. Gray, Types of Reading Ability as Exhibited through Tests and Laboratory
Experiments, Supplementary Educational Monographs, I, No. 5 (August, 19 17),
159-60.

1 6 REMEDIAL CASES IN READING

here that without doubt the tjpe of training which is given in primary work
by means of the flash cards is a very important element in the early training
in reading. It is also clear that the foregoing results indicate the desirabihty
of a better grading and control of such work. Incidentally the result makes
it clear that training must come at the time in a child's development when
it can produce results. Late training is often not effective.

INEFFECTIVE EYE-MOVEMENTS

Pupils frequently fail to establish the habit of moving the eyes from
left to right along the lines and of making accurate return sweeps from
the end of one line to the beginning of the next. These failures may be
due to word or meaning difficulties, to poor co-ordination of the eyes,
to poor instruction, to guessing, or to carelessness/ The case referred
to in the opening paragraphs of chapter i is an excellent illustration of
failure in reading because of ineffective eye-movements.

INADEQUATE TRAINING IN PHONETICS

— Recent experiments have shown that some children are able to learn
to read very well without any systematic training in phonetics. Other
children in the same class fail because they are unable to recognize
words independently, but when given supplementary training in pho-
netics and word analysis they are able to make up their deficiencies. '
The following case reported by G. W. Willard, Seattle, Washington,
illustrates the large amount of help which one child received through
individual instruction in phonetics.

A girl 8 years of age in the second grade was unable to read. She was
tested at the Child Study Laboratory and found to be normal mentally, and
she was also normal physically. She entered the Restoration Class. Study
showed that she had no phonetic foundation and was unable to memorize all
the new words introduced and consequently was very much confused. An
attractive phonetic chart of the various famiUes was made. Little stories
were introduced to arouse the child's interest. A game was organized in which
the teacher sounded the words and the child pronounced them. This was
played for two weeks until the child expressed a wish to change the game
and sound the words and have the teacher pronounce them. It was discovered
that the child had a real fear whenever she was asked to sound words. Con-
fidence being established, she was taught to read and was returned to her
grade in two months. The report shows that at present she is having no
difficulty.

INADEQUATE ATTENTION TO THE CONTENT

- In contrast to the case which has just been described, many pupils
fail in reading because they give too much attention to word recognition

SIGNIFICANT TYPES AND CAUSES OF FAILURE 17

and not enough to content. Inadequate atfention to the content proves
very disastrous in many cases, resulting in ineffective oral reading and
poor interpretation in silent reading^'' The summary^ which follows
illustrates the need of giving more emphasis to the content in many
cases.

The conclusion was arrived at that for this child, at least, phonetic drill
had been carried beyond the point where it was useful. Instead of being the
means to the recognition of word meaning it had become an end in itself, and
really blocked the recognition of the meaning. The treatment, therefore, had
as its first object the short-circuiting of this roundabout association and the
attempt to develop a more direct association between the sight of the words
and their meaning. For the time being, then, all phonetic analysis was aban-
doned, but later on some attention was given to the syllabication of words in
order to develop the recognition of the typical sounds represented by the
different letter combinations. But this analysis was always made with real
words, and the habit of recording letters as mere sounds was broken up.

AN INADEQUATE SPEAKING VOCABULARY

'' ' Foreign-born children and children reared in homes where a foreign
language is spoken frequently fail in reading because of inadequate
speaking vocabularies and poor language habits. The case^ which is
reported in the following paragraph is an excellent illustration of a
foreign child who was seriously handicapped in reading because of a
meager speaking vocabulary.

This boy was in the third grade when the study of his case began. Polish
was the only language spoken in the home and mail-order catalogues were the
only reading materials found there. He did not enter school until he was
approximately nine years old. On account of his size and age he was placed
in the second grade and transferred the following year to the third. When
given the Gray Oral-Reading Test he made fourteen substitutions in three
paragraphs. They entirely destroyed the meaning of the paragraphs and
showed clearly that reading was for this boy merely a process of word calling.
Remedial training was given first in oral reading and word analysis. These
were soon discontinued for a time in favor of conversation lessons about
things in which he was interested. "Topics relating to the making of a kite,
fishing, etc., were discussed. At the close of a period the discussion was
summed up in a few sentences which the teacher wrote upon the board as the
boy gave them. This was then made the story for oral reading in that lesson."
Niunerous types of language and informal reading exercises were given before

' Frank N. Freeman, "Clinical Study as a Method in Experimental Education,"
Journal 0^ Applied Psychology, IV (June-September, 1920), 126-41.
^ C. I. Anderson and Elda Merton, op. cit., pp. 783-85.

1 8 REMEDIAL CASES IN READING

readers were used again. When lessons were finally assigned from them,
stories were chosen of boys' experiences and of animals from the Elson First
Reader and the Beacon Second Reader. "Each lesson showed a slow but gradual
growth in reading power."'

A SMALL MEANING VOCABULARY

American children frequently live in communities and homes in
which they hear only a very limited speaking vocabulary. As a result
they early encounter words in their reading lessons which they may be
able to pronounce but which they do not understand. Consequently
they fail in the interpretation of many passagey^ The following report^
describes the case of a seventh-grade pupil who ranked low in comprehen-
sion because of a small meaning vocabulary.

This seventh-grade boy was fourteen years and ten months old when his
training began. "His teachers report him as a shy, timid boy, easily embar-
rassed, lacking in self-confidence and initiative in the classroom, though very

energetic and responsive on the athletic field He reads in a dull,

monotonous tone, slurring words and phrases. When asked to tell what he
has read, he reproduces a few ideas in short, scrappy sentences, for apparently
he makes few associations as he reads. His teachers in history and geography
explain his poor standing in their subjects as attributable to inabiUty to get
ideas from the text. He apparently reads as rapidly silently as any in the
class but gets and retains less of the thought." A careful diagnosis of the
case led to the conclusion that he had acquired ability to pronounce words
which exceeded very much his ability to understand their meanings. Remedial
training was carried on for eighteen weeks for the purpose of building up a
background of meanings and of improving his ability to understand what he
read. Oral- and silent-reading lessons were assigned; words were studied in
the context for meaning; and detailed studies were made of prefijces, sufiixes
and stems. At the conclusion of the training period tests were given again
in both oral and silent reading. The remedial instruction had apparently
aft'ected the mechanical side of his reading very little. On the other hand,
there was marked improvement in his comprehension of what he read.'

SPEECH DEFECTS

-Speech defects have been reported as responsible for failures in oral

reading.^ For illustration, a report was received concerning a boy who
talked through his teeth and distorted his mouth to such an extent
while speaking or reading that he was considered a complete failure in

' A condensed summary of the original report.
' Charles H. Judd, op. oil., pp. 106-18.

SIGNIFICANT TYPES AND CAUSES OF FAILURE 19

oral reading. The report which follows describes the case of a third-
grade boy who stuttered. The case was reported by Miss Margaret
Yazer, Virginia, Minnesota.

John is a nervous and self-conscious child. He has always stuttered, but
this handicap has been more serious since an attack of diphtheria. Very
remarkable results were obtained by reading aloud with him, allowing him
to skip or stop whenever he wished to. He recovered quickly as a rule and
continued to read. As these exercises continued he encountered difficulty
less and less frequently. After several months, his teacher submitted the
following report:

"His improvement as to stuttering continues to be very marked. At
present he even volunteers to recite all by himself, a thing unheard of before.
He does not always succeed, and it seems to me that two factors enter in when
he fails: (i) Excitement, embarrassment, or nervousness may bring back the
old stuttering habit. (2) There is a decided difference in his success based
on the particular word that he chooses with which to begin his opening sentence.
All words beginning with b, p, I, a, and 0 were practically impossible for him
at first. They produced a dead halt and paroxysms of the throat, often
followed by complete rout and confusion. Today, due to a little game con-
stantly played by himself and the teacher in a jolly way, he recognized these
letters as definite obstacles to be overcome. He has completely mastered
p and / and is never entirely defeated by the others."

LACK OF INTEREST

Many cases have been (reported in which failure was attributed to
lack of interest or to a positive dislike for reading. In some of these
cases, it has been found that lack of interest in reading was due to some
fundamental difficulty such as dyslexia, poor auditory memory, or visual
defects. The following case which was reported by Miss Gracia Moss is
typical of many similar cases in which lack of interest is due to a com-
bination of causes.

The subject of this study was ten years old when the investigation began.
Her school history revealed the fact that she had always been considered a
poor reader. The first time we had a silent-reading period she looked bored
and disgusted. On inquiry it was found that she had never been taught to
read silently and that she had been required to give her attention mainly to
the correct pronunciation of words and had never had her attention directed
to the meaning. When she was asked to read for herself, she replied, "I hate
reading and I'U always be a poor reader." The most important problem in
remedial instruction was to stimulate a real interest in reading. A simple
story of adventure was chosen first and read with her. She showed some
signs of interest. A number of stories were begun in class and she finished

20 REMEDIAL CASES IN READING

them herself. In a short time she had a book on her desk all the time, and
when her other work was finished she read silently. She found in time that
she could derive pleasure from reading and that she could read selections
silently which she could not read aloud successfully. By the end of the third
month she had read twenty-five books in the school library and was securing
books regularly from the city library. At the end of the first semester she
was not only an effective silent reader but had also become a very good oral
reader,

GUESSING VERSUS ACCURATE RECOGNITION

Some pupils who encounter difficulties in learning to read adopt
various devices for making satisfactory recitations, such as memorizing
the passages read by other children^ G. W. Willard, Seattle, Washington,
describes the case of a boy who depended on guessing to such an extent
that he failed notably in independent reading. The report illustrates
the gregit value of a strong motive in overcoming poor habits and in
establishing appropriate ones.

A boy entered school at six years of age in 1919 and remained in the first
grade until February, 1921. He was tested by the Child Study Laboratory
and found to have normal intelligence. He was sent to the Restoration Class.
It was found upon investigation that he had a reading vocabulary of twenty
words. He had a very bad habit of guessing. It was discovered that he was
very much interested in animal stories. With this as a cue, animal stories
were read to him. He made an animal book by cutting out and pasting
pictures of animals. Then he told simple stories about animals. These the
teacher printed in his book. After two weeks, the boy wished to print his
own stories. The teacher printed the stories on the board and the boy with a
small printing press printed the stories in his book. This book he was so
proud of that he wished to take it home so he could read the stories to his
mother. The motive was sufficiently strong to help him break up the habit
of guessing. In six months he was reading in the second reader. He was
returned to his grade and is having no difficulty.

TIMIDITY

' -Numerous cases have been reported recently of failures in reading

due to timidity or lack of confidence. The case described in the following
paragraph was reported by G. W. Willard, Seattle, Washington.

A boy eight years of age of normal intelligence had attended school two
years regularly and was still in the IB class. Teacher's report: "Very poor
word memory. No phonetic sense. Stubborn. Does not enter into any of
the school activities. Will take no part in the conversation." He entered the
Restoration Class. The teacher found the boy to be extremely timid. For

SIGNIFICANT TYPES AND CAUSES OF FAILURE 21

two weeks he answered in monosyllables. Various pictures and stories were
used to find his line of interest. His interest was discovered when the picture
of a Red Cross dog was shown to him. Using this as a cue, all sorts of pictures
and stories of other dogs were used. At last a book was given to him and he
was asked to read the story. In place of reading he told the stor>' from memory.
Confidence was estabhshed and the rest was easy. It was discovered that the
boy had a good sense of sound and by individual work a phonetic basis was
laid. The rapidity with which he progressed led us to believe that it was
extreme timidity that was at the root of the trouble. He was returned to
the second grade and the follow-up-report shows that he has had a double
promotion and is a fluent reader.

SUMMARY

Fourteen possible causes of failure in reading have been briefly
described. They are inferior learning capacity, congenital word blind-
ness, poor auditory memory, defective vision, a narrow span of recogni-
tion, inefifective eye-movements, inadequate training in phonetics,
inadequate attention to content, inadequate speaking vocabulary, a
small meaning vocabulary, speech defects, lack of interest, guessing,
and timidity. There were many causes of failure reported which have
not l^en described in this chapter, such as inappropriate reading mate-
rials and ineffective teaching. The fact that there are so many causes
of failure in reading emphasizes the importance of deliberate studies of
individual difficulties before remedial instruction is organized.

BIBLIOGR.\PHY

Anderson, C. J., and Merton, Elda. "Remedial Work in Reading,"
Elementary School Journal, XX (May and June, 1920), 685-701, 772-91.

Freeman, Frank N. "Clinical Study as a Method in Experimental Educa-
tion," Journal of Applied Psychology, IV (June-September, 1920), 126-41,

Gray, William S. "Individual Difiiculties in Silent Reading in the Fourth,
Fifth, and Sixth Grades," Twentieih Yearbook of the National Society for
the Study of Education, Part II, pp. 39-53.

. "The Diagnostic Study of an Individual Case in Reading," Ele-
mentary School Journal, XXI (April, 1921), 577-94.

Gray, C. T. Types of Reading Ability as Exhibited through Tests and Labora-
tory Experiments, Supplementary Educational Monographs, I, No. 5
(August, 191 7), 159-60.

JuDD, Charles H. Reading: Its Nature and Development, Supplementary
Educational Monographs, Vol. II, No. 4 (July, 1918), chaps, v-viii.

Keener, E. E. "Use of Measurements in a Small City School System,"
Journal of Educational Research, III, No. 3 (March, 1921), 201-6.

22 REMEDIAL CASES IN READING

McCall, William A. How to Measure in Education, chap. iv. New York:

Macmillan Co., 1922.
McLaughlin, Katherine. Special Training and Tests for Elementary Pupils

Deficient in Reading (unpublished Master's thesis, University of Chicago,

August, 191 7).
Monroe, W. S. Measuring Results of Teaching, cha-^.m. Boston: Houghton

Mifflin Co., 1 91 8.
ScHMiTT, Clara. "Developmental Alexia: Congenital Word Blindness, or

Inability to Read," Elementary School Journal, XVIII (May and June,

1918), 680-700, 757-69.
Thorndike, E. L. " Reading as Reasoning: A Study of Mistakes in Paragraph

Reading," Journal of Educational Psychology, VIII (June, 1917), 323-32.
Uhl, W. L. "The Use of the Results of Reading Tests as a Basis for Planning

Remedial Work," Elementary School Journal, XVII (December, 1916),

266-75.
Wallin, J. E. W. "Congenital Word Blindness— Some Analyses of Cases,"

The Training School Bulletin, Vineland, New Jersey (September-October,

1920).
ZiRBES, Laura. "Diagnostic Measurement as a Basis for Procedure,"

Elementary School Journal, XVIII (March, 1918), 505-22.
Diagnostic and Remedial Suggestions for Silent Reading in the Elementary

Schools of Tulsa, Oklahoma. Bulletin No. 12, Board of Education,

1921-22.

CHAPTER III

METHODS EMPLOYED IN THE STUDY OF INDIVIDUAL CASES

GENERAL PLAN

The investigations reported in the chapters which follow were
undertaken to determine significant types of remedial cases, their
important characteristics, the causes of difficulty in each case, and
appropriate kinds of remedial instruction. Twenty-five children
whose cases were studied in detail were secured from the University
Elementary School, the school of the Orthogenic Department of Rush
Medical College, and a public school of Chicago. In addition two
children were brought to the reading laboratory by their parents.
Children were selected for examination by three methods. In the
University Elementary School, seven were referred by classroom teachers
to the reading laboratory as soon as it was discovered that they were
encountering serious difficulties in reading. In the Orthogenic Insti-
tute, four were selected for special study after a preliminary investi-
gation had been made of the reading accomplishments of all the pupils.
In the city public school, fourteen pupils were selected for investigation
after several standardized reading tests had been given in various
classrooms. The tests were administered to four pupils of each class-
room who were reported by their teachers as very poor in reading.

As soon as a pupil had been selected for diagnosis, he was given tests
and reading exercises for a week or more for the purpose of determining
the general character of his reading difficulties. The results of the tests
were analyzed and interpreted. His classroom reading was observed
and a careful analysis was made of the errors which he made. His
school history was studied to determine possible explanations for his
difficulties. Information was also secured from his parents and teachers.
After a tentative conclusion had been reached in regard to his case a
remedial program was planned. From twenty-five to thirty minutes
of individual instruction was given each day for several weeks. No
opportunity was lost during remedial exercises to discover additional
facts concerning his reading habits. In some cases it became necessary
to revise the original diagnosis and to adopt a new plan of remedial
instruction. At the end of the period of training, check tests were given

23

24 REMEDIAL CASES IN READING

to determine the amount of progress which had been made. In this
connection different forms of the tests used in the diagnosis were given,
if they were available. In a few cases it was possible to give tests several
weeks after the training was discontinued to determine if the improve-
ment had been permanent.

THE TECHNIQUE OF DIAGNOSIS

Use was made in these investigations of the methods of diagnosis
which have been reported in previous studies. The methods which
were available were relatively few in number and it was necessary to
supplement them in individual cases with tests which were of value in
securing various t5^es of information. After several studies had been
made, it was decided to organize each investigation around three major
steps. These were not always taken in the same order because the pupils
were selected by different methods. In general, however, the following
order was observed.

1. A study of the child's history was made at the beginning to
secure facts which might aid in determining the specific difficulties
which he encountered. Later, his history was reviewed to find a possible
explanation for poor work and for any unusual difficulties. Facts
concerning his history were secured from school records, teachers, and
parents. In some cases it was impossible to secure sufficient reliable
information to make effective use of it in the diagnosis.

2. A preliminary diagnosis was made of the child's reading
accomplishments through the use of standardized tests. A careful
analysis was made of the results of these tests in order to determine in
which phases of reading he encountered serious difficulties. A general
intelligence test was also given to determine his probable learning
capacity.

3. A more deliberate analysis of his reading difficulties was usually
made through the use of informal or unstandardized tests. This step
was necessary because the standardized tests frequently failed to provide
sufficient information to insure an accurate diagnosis. In some cases
these informal tests were modifications of standardized tests; in other
cases they were based on selections in readers. Before the specific
nature of a child's difficulties was accurately determined it frequently
became necessary to observe his classroom work, to secure information
from his teachers concerning his reading errors and difficulties, to compare
with him a good reader for the purpose of determining differences, and
to make use of the child's own introspections and comments.

METHODS EMPLOYED IN INDIVIDUAL CASES

25

HISTORY OF CASES

As soon as a pupil was selected for study, an effort was made to find
out as much as possible concerning his past history. This was a very
important step because an explanation for his failure could frequently
be secured only from his past record. In order to systematize this part
of the study a blank containing more than one hundred items was
prepared through the co-operation of L. W. Miller and more than one
hundred supervisors and teachers of reading. The main headings of
the blank were: Home Conditions; Physical History and Condition;
Mental Characteristics, Temperament, and Play Activities; School
History; Reading History; and Present Status in Reading.

The points which proved to be most valuable under "Home Condi-
tions" were (a) nationaUty of parents, (b) language most used in the
home, (c) attitude of parents toward child, and (d) home provisions for
reading and conversation. Under "Physical History and Condition"
information concerning (a) general physical conditions, (b) nutrition,
and (c) visual, auditory, and speech defects proved to be very helpful.
Under "Mental Characteristics, Temperament, and Play Activities"
the teacher's answers to the following questions were usually very
suggestive: Is the child timid or aggressive, industrious or lazy, careful
or careless, independent or dependent, co-operative or individualistic?
How and where is time before and after school usually spent? The
remainder of the outline is here reproduced.

SCHOOL raSTORY (OTHER THAN READING)

1. Pedagogical index:

a) Grade now in ?

b) Years in school ?

2. Grade or grades "skipped"? Why?

3. Did pupil ever fail to be promoted ? Why ?

Grade

School
Attended

Kind— City,

Country ,
Public, Pa-
rochial,
Private

Age at
Entering

Number

of Years in

Grade

Descriptive
Statements
Concerning
Quality of
Work

Kindergarten

First

Second

Third

Fourth

Fifth

Sixth

Seventh

26

REMEDIAL CASES IN READING

4. Average grade or mark given thus far this year in each subject taken by
the pupil

Subjects

Reading. . .

Spelling

Language .
Writing. . . .
History. . . .
Geography.

Grade

Other
Subjects

Grade

5. Is slow'progress in any subject due to difj&culties in reading ? (Comment
in detail)

6. Has attendance been regular ? Causes of irregularity and amount ?

7. Attitude of

a) Pupil to teacher ?

b) Pupil to school ?

8. Does child use hbrary ? How much ?

9. Additional facts concerning school work other than reading which might
explain cause of slow progress in reading ?

READING HISTORY

1. Before the child entered school, were the conditions in the home such as to
stimidate an interest in books and a desire to read ?

a) Was instruction attempted ?
(i) Amount and character ?
(2) Success?

2. Was instruction in reading given in the kindergarten ?

a) Amount ?

b) Character?

3. Type of instruction in primary grades?

a) Basic method used, if any ?

b) Was reading for content stressed ?

(i) Did he acquire habits of intelligent reading?

c) Was instruction given in phonetics and word analysis ?
(i) Did he become an independent, fluent reader?

d) Extent of opportunities for supplementary or library reading ?
(i) Amount of voluntary reading ?

(2) Kinds of selections chosen ?

4. Character of instruction in grades I\', V, and VI ?

5. Has reading development been fluctuating or uniform?
a) When was difficulty first noticed ?

(i) Nature of difficulty ?

METHODS EMPLOYED IN INDIVIDUAL CASES 27

6. Has he ever had remedial work ?

a) When? Purpose? ■ .

b) How long continued ?

c) Methods employed ?

d) Results?

7. Additional facts in reading history which might explain present diflSculties
in reading ?

PRESENT STATUS IN READING

1 . Oral (answer the following questions in detail) :

a) In what phases does he excel ?

b) What are his characteristic weaknesses ?

2. Silent (answer the following questions in detail) :

a) In what phases does he excel ?

b) What are his characteristic weaknesses?

3. What reading difficulties, if any, are evidenced in content subjects, such as
histor>', geography, science ?

4. What are the amount and character of the pupil's outside or supplementary
reading ?

5. Probable causes of reading difficulties

a) Does he express himself in EngHsh as well as the average pupils in his
grade ? If not, in what way is he deficient ?

b) Is his vocabular>' adequate ?
(i) In speaking?

(:;) In understanding what he hears.

c) Are his experiences adequate for the comprehension of what he reads?

d) Additional significant causes ?

6. Special interests of pupil which may be used in overcoming reading diffi-
culties:

a) In school subjects ?

b) In outside activities ?

7. Additional facts of significance ?

PRELIMINARY DIAGNOSIS

A study of the reading accomplishments of a pupil was made through
the use of standardized tests, for two purposes: (a) to determine the
phases of reading in which he was relatively strong or weak; and (b) to
determine the extent of his deficiencies by comparing his scores with
standard scores. Little or no use was made in these diagnoses of
"Educational Age," "Educational Quotient," and "Accomplishment
Quotient" because only a limited number of tests have been so organized
that these measures of efficiency can be used to advantage. In order
to secure information concerning all of the more important phases of

28 REMEDIAL CASES IN READING

reading accomplishment, the following standardized tests were used
the Gray Oral Reading Test; the Courtis Silent Reading Test, No. 2;
the Burgess Scale for Measuring Ability in Silent Reading; the
Thorndike-McCall Silent Reading Test; and the Monroe Silent Reading
Test. Whenever the Monroe test was given, only the comprehension
score was used. Furthermore, the Thorndike-McCall and the Monroe
tests were seldom used in the same diagnosis unless there were serious
questions concerning the validity of the score in the test which was given
first. The Haggerty Reading Examination, Sigma I, was used in a
limited number of cases in which the subjects were unable to score in
any of the more difficult silent-reading tests. Inasmuch as all of these
tests have been described and their vaUdity discussed in numerous recent
bulletins and magazine articles, they will not be described at length in this
monograph. Bibliographical references are included at the end of this
chapter for the use of those interested in making a careful study of
the tests which were used.

As a rule, a standardized test was given only once in a preliminary
diagnosis. If, however, there was any evidence that the score was not
a true measure of the pupil's accomplishment a different form of the same
test was given in order to check the results of the first test. The reason
for not following a more rigorous procedure lies in the fact that the
preliminary diagnosis was followed by a detailed study of the difficulties
encountered by pupils in informal tests or in reading exercises.

In the preliminary diagnosis, a measure of the pupil's general
intelligence was secured through the use of one of a number of tests.
Whenever a pupil was tested individually the Stanford Revision of the
Binet-Simon Intelligence Tests was used. Frequently, it was convenient
to test several pupils at the same time. In such cases, the Illinois
Intelligence Test was used. In still other cases, the pupils had been
carefully tested with the National Intelligence Tests a short time before
the diagnoses of their reading difficulties were undertaken. Inasmuch
as these tests had been given under unusually satisfactory conditions,
the scores were adopted for use in this investigation. There were two
reasons for giving intelligence tests in connection with the present
investigation : first, it has been found that there is a very high correlation
between general intelligence as measured by these tests and a pupil's
abihty in reading; and second, intelligence tests provide information
concerning a pupil's probable learning capacity. The statement should
be added, however, that some pupils who rank low in an intelligence
test make satisfactory, and even very rapid, progress in reading when
they are given appropriate instruction.

METHODS EMPLOYED IN INDIVIDUAL CASES 29

DETAILED DIAGNOSIS THROUGH THE USE OF UNSTANDARDIZED TESTS

The preliminary diagnosis frequently failed to reveal the exact
nature of a pupil's difficulty. In order to secure additional information
the diagnosis was continued through the use of unstandardized reading
tests designed to secure special types of information. In some cases,
these were modifications of standardized tests.

Several tests were used in studying a pupil's difficulty in the recogni-
tion of words. At first, the Jones Vocabulary Test was given. This
test includes 118 phonetic words and 196 sight words which appeared
most frequently in ten widely used primers. It was found, however,
that the test required too much time and that equally satisfactory
results could be secured with a shorter list. Accordingly, 100 words
were selected from the two lists in the same proportion in which they
appear in the original test. The test which was formed from these
words is referred to in later discussions as Word Recognition Test A.

Whenever a pupil encountered serious difficulty in Word Recognition
Test A, he was given Word Element Test A in order to determine his
mastery of simple phonetic elements. This test consists of two parts.
The first includes 80 words such as back, fed, ill, now, and cut, which
contain the phonetic elements which are emphasized most frequently
in eighteen manuals of primary reading. The purpose of the first part
of the test was to determine whether pupils were able to recognize
words in sentences which they were unable to recognize when presented
individually. Each word was printed on a card. A sentence containing
it appeared on the back of the card. Each word was presented first
in isolation. If a pupil failed to recognize a word, the sentence containing
it was presented. The second part of the test includes words which
contain the phonetic elements to which reference has just been made.
The words were so arranged on the test sheet that those having the same
word endings and those having the same initial consonants appeared in
couplets. The first ten couplets in each list follow:

back

smack

tail

snail

cake

flake

aU

faU

came

shame

an

plan

at

vat

and

stand

lace

trace

mash

splash

sale

whale

bake

bent

call

cold

den

dog

fed

fame

get

gum

hand

hut

jail

jut

kind

keen

log

luck

meet

mop

neat

nest

30 REMEDIAL CASES IN READING

The test was given by asking a pupil to pronounce the word back
which was typewritten on a card. If he was unable to recognize the
word, it was pronounced for him. He was then asked to pronounce
the word smack which appeared on the same card. If he was unable
to do this, the common element ack was pointed out. It was assumed
that if a child had received some phonetic training and was familiar
with the elements of words he would be able to pronounce the word
smack. In order to test his knowledge of the sounds of word elements,
a pupil was next asked to give other words containing ack. The test
revealed some very interesting facts. For example, if pupils were unable
to give other words containing ack, it was discovered that in some cases
they could not hear distinctly and that in other cases they were in need
of training in the recognition of sounds.

The great difi&culty encountered by some pupils in recognition
suggested the possibility of defects in visual memory. Accordingly,
Test 13, Part I of the June, 1919, Series, of the National Intelligence
Tests, was given. This contains twenty drawings and numbers which
are to be looked at on one sheet and then located on another sheet.
According to the directions which accompany the test, the subject looked
at Figure i long enough to get it clearly in mind. He then turned to
the next page of the folder which contained a large number of similar
figures, found the appropriate figure, and wrote "i" under it. The
same procedure was followed in the case of the remaining nineteen items
of the test. Wide differences were revealed in the ability of pupils to
perform this test.

If a pupil read very slowly, either orally or silently, he was given
short-exposure tests through the use of a drop tachistoscope in order to
determine the accuracy and span of recognition. The materials used in
the tests included the twenty-six letters of the alphabet, eighteen two-
letter words, and ten of each of the following: two-letter non-sense sylla-
bles, three-letter words, three-letter non-sense syllables, four-letter words,
four-letter non-sense syllables, two-word phrases, and three-word
sentences. Each item was presented until it was accurately recognized
and the number of necessary exposures recorded. In the cases of
pupils who encountered serious difficulties in recognition, a given item
was not exposed more than ten times.

In order to study a pupil's habits of recognition in terms of the
behavior of his eyes while reading, photographic records of his £ye-
movements were secured in both oral and silent reading by Dr. G. T.
Buswell. A reproduction of a portion of a silent-reading record appears
in Plate I.

METHODS EMPLOYED IN INDIVIDUAL CASES

31

A word of explanation is necessary in order that such records may
be interpreted readily. The vertical lines drawn through the words
indicate the points of eye fixations. The numbers above the vertical
lines indicate the order of fixations. The numbers at the lower end of
the lines indicate the lengths of the fixations in twenty-fifths of a second.
In the first line of the record the first fixation occurred in the word window
and remained there for twelve twenty-fifths of a second. The second
fixation occurred in the word Peter and remained there for eleven twenty-
fifths of a second. The fourth fixation occurred to the left of the third
fixation. A movement to the left, such as occurred between the third
and fourth fixations, is known as a regressive movement. The movement
from the end of the first line to the beginning of the second is known as a

PLATE I

I 2 4-35

windo.v. Petefr cpu

ii.

d sei ev(?rythin

rooTi

»' r 1+ «

II 20 5 8 1 +

34-5 6

All at once hv. heerd a r

he

T g 3

t 5 5

r 8

oise. reter

J 3

return sweep. In the analysis and interpretation of these records use
was made of the grade standards reported by Dr. G. T. Buswell.^

It was usually necessary to supplement the facts secured through
the use of the tests, which have been described, by information secured
through informal tests of oral and silent reading. For example, when a
pupil encountered difficulties in interpretation, it was frequently advis-
able to find out the kinds of selections which caused the most difficulty,
such as fairy stories, passages containing a series of important facts,
or passages which require independent thinking. Whenever there was
need of such information, passages were selected from texts which were
adapted to the purpose at hand. Brief descriptions of two of these
informal tests follow:

a) In order to test a pupil's abihty to get the main points of a story
and to reproduce the essential facts in correct sequence a selection
such as "The New Voices," Elson Primary School Reader, Book II,

' G. T. Buswell, Fimdamental Reading Habits: A Study of Their Dcvcloptncnt,
Supplementary Educational Monographs, No. 21 (June, 1922).

32 REMEDIAL CASES IN READING

pp. 61-63, was used. Before reading the selection the pupil was given
the following directions: "Find out why the animals wanted to change
their voices." "Who helped them?" "What did the fox, the wolf,
and the hawk do when their voices were changed?" "Why did they
not keep their new voices ? "

b) The selection entitled "The Little Cook," Elson Primary School
Reader, Book II, p. 146, illustrates the type of passages used to test a
pupil's ability to interpret factual material. The pupil's interest was
aroused by calling his attention to the picture at the top of the page.
He was then given the following explanation and directions. "The
little girl in this story wanted to see George Washington when he visited
the next town but she had to stay at home. Read to find out why she
stayed at home and how she finally got to see him. Find out why the
title 'The Little Cook' fits the story." After reading the selection
the following questions were asked:

Where did Betty live ?

How old was she ?

What had she learned to do ?

Why was she alone ?

How did George Washington travel ?

Describe his coach and horses ?

How many horsemen had he ? How were they dressed ?

Informal exercises similar to those which have been described were
organized for a wide variety of useful purposes by the teachers who aided
in the diagnostic and remedial work : (a) to test a pupil's rate of reading
simple and difficult passages; (b) to determine the kinds of errors made
in reading selections orally; (c) to find out the kinds of stories in which
a pupil was interested; (d) to determine the length of time a pupil
could concentrate in the study of a reading problem; (e) to interpret a
fable or an imaginative selection; (/) to follow directions; and (g) to
find answers to specific questions. The interpretation of the facts
secured through the use of both informal and standardized tests will be
illustrated in the descriptions of individual cases in later chapters.

REMEDIAL INSTRUCTION

As soon as the nature of a pupil's difficulty had been determined,
remedial instruction was begun. The character of this instruction
varied so widely that most of it can be described clearly only in the
reports of individual cases. On the other hand, several methods and
devices were used in different cases with but few changes. In order to

METHODS EMPLOYED IN INDIVIDUAL CASES 33

avoid duplication the most frequently used devices are described at this
point and will be referred to briefly in the reports which follow.

EXERCISES TO INCREASE ACCURACY OF RECOGNITION

Exercises were used to overcome three types of inaccuracies in word
recognition. ^

1. Words wmch a pupil failed to recognize accurately while reading
were used in sentences at the end of each period in order that he might
associate them with their meaning. The words which repeatedly
caused difficulty were then typewritten on cards and used in quick-
perception drills, by presenting them as rapidly as they were recognized.
Such words as again, want, been, does, and heard were frequently empha-
sized. As soon as a pupil was able to recognize a word readily, drill
on it was discontinued. New words were added to the list as difficulties
were encountered.

2. Words which a pupil confused because of their similarity in form
were emphasized in drill exercises. These words included such groups
as thought, though, and through, there and where, then and when, now and
how, and has, had, and have. The words were used in sentences before
they were presented in quick-perception drills. If unusual difficulties
were encountered, words which were similar in form were presented
together so that their differences could be studied.

3. Pupils who recognized isolated words accurately frequently made
errors in recognizing the same words in phrases and sentences. In order
to overcome this difficulty a word, such as there, was written on the
board in several phrases or short sentences and the pupil was given
opportunity to study them deliberately. As soon as he was able to
recognize these phrases readily they were typewritten on cards and
presented in quick-perception drills.

EXERCISES TO INCREASE SPAN OF RECOGNITION

To aid a pupil in increasing his span of recognition, phrases were
printed on cards and presented to him rapidly in flash-card, or quick-
perception drills. At first, short phrases, such as one day, every time,
asked she, he said, very fast, over there, and as though, were presented.
These phrases were taken from the lessons which he was reading and the
list included those which occurred most frequently. As soon as the
pupil was able to recognize short phrases, longer and more difficult
phrases were used, such as again and again, over the hill, around the house,

34 REMEDIAL CASES IN READING

wherever he could, pretty little things, thought to himself, as fast as they could,
while I am gone, and as much as he wanted.

EXERCISES TO INCREASE ABILITY IN WORD RECOGNITION

When a pupil had difficulty in recognizing and prono|jpcing words
because he failed to associate sounds and their symWs he was given
some training in phonetics. If he was unable to p^io^i^e a word,
such as fed, he was given a familiar word, such as bed, and Was asked
to name others ending in ed. If he failed to recognize the familiar
element ed other words, such as red and led, were supplied. If the initial
consonant caused difficulty, other words beginning with/ were pronounced
for him and written on the board. If he had difficulty with the vowel
sound, he was given lists of words containing short e, such as met, set,
get, and hen, when, den. After several different endings and initial
consonants had been used with short e, a chart containing such words
as let, pen, tell, fled, and bless was presented to test the pupil's ability to
recognize short e in various combinations. After all short vowel sounds
or all long vowel sounds had been given, similar charts were prepared
and used as a final test of recognition. This method prevented a child
from depending entirely on so-called "families" in recognizing words.
Initial consonant blends, vowel digraphs, and phonograms were taught
in the same way.

In the cases of many pupils certain rules of pronunciation were given
in addition to the exercises which have just been described. The rules
which proved most helpful follow.

1. When there is only one vowel in a word or syllable, that vowel is
usually short as in can, met, hit, not, and cup.

2. When a one-syllable word ends in e, the e is silent and the preceding
vowel is long, as in lame, hope, and write.

3. When there are two vowels together in a word or syllable, the
first one is usually long and the second one is silent, as in beat, rain,
and coat.

EXERCISES TO AID IN INTERPRETATION

I. When a pupil had difficulty in interpreting the important points
of a story and in reproducing the story in correct sequence, he was
assigned a short selection which was sometimes divided into thought
units. The page was cut as illustrated and the paragraphs were
mounted with wider spaces between them than in ordinary print in
order to emphasize each thought unit.

METHODS EMPLOYED IN INDIVIDUAL CASES 35

BILLY THE CROW

Bill, the crow, was very fond of corn. He used to go to the farmer's field
at day break. He would call all the other crows to come too.

The farmer said, "I cannot let you eat all my corn." So he made a
scare-crow and put it in the field, but that did not frighten Billy at all. Then
the farmer said, "I will get my gun and shoot those crows!"

Billy did not get shot, but he was so frightened that he left the farmer's
corn alone. He told all the other crows to keep away too.

The pupil was asked to read one paragraph at a time and to tell
what he had read. If he failed, he was asked such questions as "Who
was Billy?" " What did he like ? " " Where did he get it ? " "Who
went with him ? " If he could not answer the questions he was asked to
re-read the passage. As soon as he was able to answer questions concern-
ing the content of short passages accurately, the length and difificulty
of the passages were increased.

2. Selections similar to the one which follows, taken from Searson
and Martin's Studies in Reading, Book II, were used in training pupils
to read a story and to answer questions based on its content. For
convenience, these passages and their questions were cut from the book
and mounted on cardboard. The child was asked to read a selection
silently and to answer the questions. In early exercises of this type the
reading of the passages was prefaced by a brief discussion and by a study
of the questions. In later exercises he read the passage first and then
answered the questions as he read them.

THE TIMID RABBITS

Long ago some rabbits lived in the woods with other wild animals.

When the lion roared, or the tiger even passed by, the rabbits trembled
with fear.

"What shall we do?" asked a timid little rabbit. "I am afraid of the
lion and the tiger. I know they will soon eat us."

"What was that ? I'm afraid — "

"Let us jump into the lake," said another. "It is better to be dead than
to live in such fear."

So the timid little rabbits ran to the lake as fast as they could.

36 REMEDIAL CASES IN READING

Some frogs heard them. The frogs were afraid and jumped with a splash
into the lake.

"See, the frogs are more timid than we are. They are afraid of us," said
a wise old rabbit, "Why, then, should we want to die?"

And they all ran back to their homes in the woods.

QUESTIONS

1. Of what were these rabbits afraid?

2. What tells how much afraid they were?

3. What did they start to do ?

4. What happened as they came to the lake ?

5. What did a wise old rabbit say ?

6. Then what did the rabbits do ?

3. After a pupil had made marked progress in the accurate inter-
pretation of simple passages through such exercises as i and 2, more
difficult questions and directions were frequently assigned to train
him to interpret the content of a story more critically, to execute direc-
tions, or to think independently about what he read. Illustrative
questions based on the selections used in the two preceding exercises
follow.

BILLY THE CROW

1. How did Billy show that he was a friend of the other crows?

2. Do you think the farmer did right ? If you do, draw a line under the
word "right"; if you do not, draw a circle around it. Why do you think so ?

THE TIMID RABBITS

1. To what extent were the rabbits wise in overcoming their fear of other
animals ?

2. Draw a line under the word below that tells which rabbit saved the
lives of the others.

Httle wise large

SIGNIFICANT STATEMENTS CONCERNING REMEDIAL INSTRUCTION

In concluding this brief discussion of methods of remedial instruction
the following significant statements should be made, (i) The methods
which have been described illustrate only a very small number of the
methods which were employed. (2) Remedial instruction was not
limited to exercises of the type which have been described but consisted
for the most part of methods used by a skilful teacher in regular class-
room instruction. The fundamental difference was that the pupils

METHODS EMPLOYED IN INDIVIDUAL CASES 37

were taught individually rather than in groups. (3) Whenever a specific
difficulty had been located and remedial exercises given, an attempt
was made to continue instruction until the pupil had substituted appro-
priate habits for inaccurate ones in all of his reading activities. In many
cases it was impossible to secure entirely satisfactory results in the time
devoted to this investigation.

PLAN OF REPORTING INDIVIDUAL CASES

At the end of the training period, detailed descriptions of the cases
were prepared. In this connection an attempt was made to describe
for each case the significant difficulties which were encountered, the
causes as far as they could be determined, and the remedial instruction
which was given. The cases were then classified into the following
general types: (a) pupils who had made little or no progress in learning
to read; (b) pupils who encountered serious difficulties in interpretation;
(c) pupils who had encountered difficulties primarily in the mechanics
of reading; (d) pupils who encountered difficulties in rate of silent
reading; and (e) pupils who had made progress in learning to read but
who were weak in practically all phases of reading.

There are doubtless other types of cases which should be included
in a complete classification. The five which have just been mentioned
were used because the cases studied fall most readily into these groups.

The five chapters which follow contain introductory and summary
discussions concerning the types of cases which have been described;
also detailed descriptions of individual cases. The final chapter contains
a report of the organization of diagnostic and remedial work in Toledo,
Ohio, and description of the methods which teachers of Toledo used in
remedial instruction. Superintendents and principals will probably be
most interested in the introduction and summary to each of chapters
iv to viii inclusive, in the brief characterization of each individual case,
and in the entire report of the Toledo experiment which is found in
chapter ix. Supervisors and teachers of reading may study to advantage
each of the chapters which follow. Those who are interested primarily
in diagnostic work should read the introductory statements, the reports
of the preliminary and detailed diagnoses, and the summary of the
diagnosis for each individual case as presented in chapters iv to viii
inclusive. Those who are interested primarily in remedial work should
read the summary of the diagnosis, the report of remedial instruction,
and the results which were secured in each case presented in chapters
iv to ix inclusive.

38 REMEDIAL CASES IN READING

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Burgess, May Ayres. The Measurement of Silent Reading. New York:

Department of Education, Russell Sage Foundation, 1921.
Courtis, S. A. "The Problem of Measuring Ability in Silent Reading,"

American School Board Journal, LIV, (May, 191 7), 17-18.
Gates, Arthur I. "An Experimental and Statistical Study of Reading and

Reading Tests," Journal of Educational Psychology, XII (September,

October, and November, 1921), 303-14, 378-90, 445-64.
Gray, William S. Studies of Elementary School Reading through Standardized

Tests, Supplementary Educational Monographs, I, No. i (February, 1917).
Jones, R. G. "Standardized Vocabulary," Fourteenth Yearbook of the National

Society for the Study of Education, Part I, pp. 37-48.
McCall, W. a. " Proposed Uniform Method of Scale Construction," Teachers'

College Record, XXII (January, 1921), 31-51.
Monroe, W. S. "Monroe's Standardized Silent Reading Tests," Journal of

Educational Psychology, IX (June, 1918), 303-12.

CHAPTER IV

PUPILS WHO HAD MADE LITTLE OR NO PROGRESS IN
LEARNING TO READ

The four pupils whose cases are reported in this chapter had made
little or no progress in learning to read. Three were in the second grade;
the fourth was a twenty-year-old youth who had completed the work
of the eighth grade through the aid of oral instruction. It is significant
that supervisors and teachers have recently reported pupils from every
grade who encounter unusual difficulties in learning to read. Such pupils
are unable to make satisfactory progress in most phases of school work
because of their reading handicap. Furthermore, they retard seriously
the progress of pupils with whom they are classified. It is therefore very
important that these pupils be identified as early in the grades as possible
and be given special remedial instruction. If it is found in the course
of time that some pupils cannot learn to read effectively, a larger amount
of oral instruction should be provided for them than for children who
read intelligently.

The diagnosis which was made of the four cases under discussion
revealed a number of interesting and significant facts, (i) They
either failed to score in the reading tests or fell below the standard
scores for the first grade. (2) They read slowly, inaccurately, and
without expression. (3) They interpreted what they read inadequately,
and in many cases inaccurately. (4) They lacked confidence in them-
selves and were uncertain of pronunciations and meanings. (5) They
engaged in reading exercises only with very great effort. (6) They
appeared to derive little, if any, pleasure or intellectual stimulus from
their reading.

The selection of pupils who belong to this type is relatively simple
because of the failure of such pupils in practically all phases of reading.
For the same reason it is very difficult to determine the specific causes
of failure and to plan appropriate remedial instruction. In the reports
which follow, an attempt has been made to describe the distinguishing
characteristics of each case, the most significant causes of failure,
and the types of instruction which were necessary in overcoming their
difficulties.

39

40

REMEDIAL CASES IN READING

CASE A

A SECOND-GRADE GIRL WHO HAD MADE BUT LITTLE PROGRESS IN READING DUE

TO PARTIAL DEAFNESS, POOR VISUAL MEMORY, TIIVUDITY, AND

GENERAL IMMATURITY

Introductory statement. — S. D. was almost nine years old when the
Study of her case began in October, 192 1. She was timid and her
language habits were undeveloped. Her teachers reported the following
significant facts: She was absent frequently on account of illness.
She felt no responsibility for progress in her school work and she took
little part in group activities. She was below the standard for her grade
in most school subjects. She was relatively immature in her habits of
thinking. A physical examination revealed the fact that she was
partially deaf in both ears and had badly decayed teeth.

Preliminary diagnosis. — A preliminary- study of the case was made
through the use of five standardized tests. The names of the tests,
S. D."s scores, and the standard second-grade scores are included in
Table I.

TABLE I

Tests

The Stanford Re\'ision of the Binet-Simon Tests

The Gray Oral Reading Test

The Burgess Silent Reading Test

The Courtis Silent Reading Test:

Rate

Comprehension

The Haggertv Reading Examination, Sigma I:

Test I..'

Test II

* Standard score for the third grade.

S.D's Scores

The scores indicate that S. D. was below the average in general
intelligence, that her oral-reading accomplishment was ver}" little better
than that of a first-grade pupil who had been in school only a few weeks,
and that she was decidedly retarded in rate of silent reading and in
interpretation. An examination of her oral-reading record showed that
she read ver\' slowly and scored on only one paragraph. Her major
errors were (a) repetitions, (b) total mispronunciations of many simple
words, such as once, same, bit, not, and saw, and (c) substitutions, such as
poor for door, good for poor and wanted for were, which indicated that
she did not have the content of the passages clearly in mind. These

PUPILS WHO HAD MADE LITTLE OR NO PROGRESS 41

difficulties in recognition were sufficient to account for her low scores
in comprehension.

Detailed diagnosis. — In the Jones Vocabulary Test, she made a score
of 42 on the sight list and 26 on the phonetic list. Most of the words
which she substituted were similar in form to the printed words or
contained one or more common elements. For example, she substituted
feet for meet, boat for boot, sun for sum, ran for rang, cheek for cheese and
window for meadow. Occasionally she substituted such words as cat for
pussy and turkey for goose in which there was some relation between the
meaning of the printed word and the meaning of the word which was
pronounced.

Informal tests in oral reading showed that she could not read primer
material satisfactorily. They also revealed the following important facts :
(i) She read slowly and haltingly because of difficulties in recognition.
(2) She recognized individual words rather than groups of words. (3)
She repeated frequently in order to correct errors or to get the meaning.
(4) She did not keep the content in mind as indicated by the fact that
her substitutions changed the meaning. (5) She was familiar with
phonetic elements in some combinations but not in others. (6) Her
visual memory was poor as illustrated by the fact that she had to be
helped frequently with the pronunciation of many simple words and she
was unable to remember them from one day to the next. (7) She did
not hear sounds distinctly and hence made wrong associations with
symbols. Her deafness seemed to be the fundamental cause of her
difficulties in recognition. It also led to the inaccurate use of words,
such as what for that and where for there.

Informal tests in interpretation showed that she could reproduce
very little of what she read. When passages were read to her and she
was not handicapped by difficulties in recognition, she did very much
better. Her answers to thought-provoking questions were usually
unsatisfactory. Detailed questioning revealed the fact that she did not
direct her attention to the content while reading or think independently
about it

Summary of diagnosis — The diagnosis showed that S. D. was some-
what below normal in intellectual ability. Her low scores in oral reading
indicated that she had not yet established reading habits comparable
to those of an average first-grade pupil at mid-year. She failed to recog-
nize many very simple words. She recognized individual words rather
than words in groups. She often substituted words which were similar
in form to the printed words regardless of their meaning. These substitu-

42 REMEDIAL CASES IN READING

tions indicated that she did not direct her attention to the content while
reading. Her rate of silent reading was slow and she was decidedly
retarded in the interpretation of what she read because of diflficulties of
recognition. Other causes of poor interpretation were (a) immaturity,
(b) a narrower background of experiences than that common to children
of her age, and (c) ineffective habits of thinking. The facts secured in
the informal tests showed clearly that most of her difficulties in reading
could be attributed to inability to hear distinctly, to poor visual memory,
to timidity, and to general immaturity.

Remedial instruction. — Remedial instruction was organized to
accomplish the following specific purposes: (a) to arouse an interest in
reading through the use of very simple, interesting selections; (b) to
develop a feeling of responsibility and pride in her work; (c) to establish
correct associations between symbols and meanings through vivid
presentations which emphasize both meaning and correct pronunciation;
(d) to encourage habits of thoughtful reading by directing her attention
to the content of what she read; and (e) to increase her span of accurate
recognition. After satisfactory progress had been made along these lines,
it was planned to give (a) training in phonetics to develop independ-
ence in recognition, and (b) more difl&cult selections and exercises
calculated to encourage independent thinking and good judgment.
Arrangements were made for thirty minutes of individual instruction
each day.

Arousing interest in reading and developing a feeling of responsibility.
— Reading had been a purely mechanical process in her case. She had
not formed the habit of looking for meanings while reading and therefore •
was not interested. Because of her diflficulties in recognition, she was
unable to read and interpret selections from second readers satisfactorily.
For the first reading exercises, therefore, stories were selected from
primers. Her interest was aroused by calling her attention to the
pictures or by discussing interesting incidents of the story. For example,
such questions and suggestions as the following were given. "What
do you think that children in this picture are going to do with the boat ?
Read the story to find out if your answer is correct." "This boy has a
pony. How do you think he got it ? Read the story to find out how he
got it, how he learned to ride, and where he is going." Informal discus-
sions revealed the fact that many of the experiences described in the
simplest stories were new to her and it was necessary to create a back-
ground which would enable her to understand and enjoy them. When
new situations were explained to her, when meanings of words were

PUPILS WHO HAD MADE LITTLE OR NO PROGRESS 43

made clear, and when she was given a motive for reading, she usually
responded with some evidence of real interest.

Establishing correct associations between symbols and meanings. —
In order to establish correct associations, it was necessary to use methods
similar to those used with a first-grade pupil who is just learning to read.
As a rule, familiar selections were used at first. When an unfamiliar
story was used, a part of it was told to her briefly in order that she might
be aided in reading through a knowledge of the content. This also
helped her to recognize words and prevented many errors. Each
sentence or short paragraph was prefaced with a suggestion concerning
its content, such as "The next line tells where the boy found his rabbit"
or "The next paragraph tells why the dog ran away." She was asked
to read such units silently before reading them aloud and was told to
ask for help when she encountered words which she did not know.
She was then able to read the paragraph aloud with a fair degree of
accuracy and fluency. When supplying a word which she did not know,
it was necessary to pronounce it very distinctly and to let her see the
lips of the speaker in order that she might get its pronunciation
accurately.

The words which caused difficulty were pronounced for her when
errors occurred and were then written on the board in sentences at the
end of the period. Duplicate sentences, phrases, and words were used
for matching. Parts of sentences were sometimes erased, leaving the
phrases which caused trouble. These were later printed on cards and
used in quick-perception drills. Words with which she could make no
definite associations, such as what, where, there, that, this, etc., caused the
greatest difficulty. It was several weeks before she was able to recognize
the word there at sight while reading, although she encountered it
several times each day. After a word had been used in drill exercises
it was written on the board in a sentence and left there for several days.
Whenever she failed to recognize it while reading, her attention was
called to the sentence on the board.

Lists of words beginning with th and wh were written on the board
to help her distinguish between them. Her confusion, no doubt, was
due to her inability to distinguish between sounds and to her poor visual
memory. After presenting words in sentences for a number of days,
isolated words were used in flash-card exercises. Later several of the
words which caused difficulty were used in sentences in the same exercise
to test her ability to distinguish them. She was then asked to match
the isolated words with those in the sentences. These words were also

44 REMEDIAL CASES IN READING

used in quick-perception drills. Sentences were written on the backs
of the drill cards and were used to aid recognition, if necessary.

Encouraging habits of thoughtful reading. — In the early sight-reading
lessons, her attention was directed to the content of each paragraph
by questions or suggestions. She was asked to secure specific items of
information while reading, and questions were asked from time to time
to test her ability to interpret what she read. Necessary explanations
were made. When she failed to answer questions, she was often asked
to re-read parts of a story or they were read to her and the important
points were emphasized. As soon as she had established the habit of
looking for meanings in sight-reading lessons, short units were assigned
for silent reading. She was encouraged to think independently about
what she read through the use of thought-provoking questions and
through discussions about the stories.

Increasing her span of recognition. — She was a typical word-reader
at first, but by directing her attention to the content and by emphasizing
correct phrasing, she was soon able to read more fluently and to group
words more effectively Quick-perception drills also helped to increase
her span of recognition.

Developing independence in recognition. — Near the end of the period
of training some attention was given to phonetics. She had formed
the habit of anticipating words by studying the content. Frequently,
however, she substituted a word which did not change the meaning
materially but which was entirely different in form from the printed
word. For example, in the sentence " He went to the stream for a drink "
she substituted the word river for the word stream. It was evident that
she gave little or no attention to the details of words. She frequently
failed to recognize words in sentences because there was nothing in the
content to suggest the right word. For example, in the sentence ''Once
there was a house," she substituted mouse for house, thereby changing
the meaning. These errors led to the conclusion that some training in
phonetics would assist her in accurate recognition and interpretation.
Accordingly, her attention was called to the first part of the word house.
Several familiar words beginning with h were written on the board and
she was asked to add to the list. Words beginning with m were also
studied. Other consonant sounds, such as b, p, d, and t, were emphasized
when she confused them or failed to recognize them. She was also
given some help in word endings and certain vowel sounds which caused
difficulty. Although instruction in phonetics was little more than begun
at the end of the training period, it was clear that she had benefited by
it and that further instruction was advisable.

PUPILS WHO HAD MADE LITTLE OR NO PROGRESS

45

Results. — She was frequently absent for several days at a time and
was out of school for almost two weeks on account of illness. Although
training was continued for eleven weeks, she received remedial instruction
for only about eight weeks. She was given the tests again in December.
The scores which she made in October, her December scores, and the
standard scores for her grade are included in Table II.

TABLE II

Tests

October

Scores

December
Scores

Standard

Second-Grade

Scores

The Gray Oral Reading Test

2-5
o

6i
14

6
0

31-25
32

68.6
16.6

13
9

43
50*

84
59

The Burgess Silent Reading Test

The Courtis Silent Reading Test:

Rate

Comprehension

The Haggerty Reading Examination, Sigma I:

Test I

Test II

8

* Standard score for the third grade.

The scores indicate that she made considerable progress in both
oral and silent reading. Although there is no standard given for the
second grade in the Burgess test, her score, as compared with the third-
grade standard, was satisfactory. Her December scores in the Courtis
test were but little better than the October scores and showed that her
reading habits were still very immature. It was concluded after the
tests had been given that a large amount of individual instruction was
still necessary.

CASE B

A SECOND-GKADE BOY WHO HAD MADE LITTLE PROGRESS IN LEARNING TO READ

BECAUSE OF MALNUTRITION, EXTREME NERVOUSNESS, AND LACK OF

INTEREST IN READING

Introductory statement. — J. O. was about eight years old at the
time this investigation began. His I.Q. according to the Stanford
Revision of the Binet-Simon Tests was 117. His father, a successful
bank cashier, was quiet, affable, and pleasant. His mother was of a
nervous temperament. The parents were keenly interested in the
boy's welfare and co-operated to the fullest extent in everything which
was done for him.

He was characterized as highly intelligent, dreamy, temperamental,
responsible, orderly, and timid, with specialized interests and clever in
handwork. He was a malnourished infant and had developed slowly.

46 REMEDIAL CASES IN READING

It was very late when he began to walk and talk, and he had always
been, and still was, under the care of a physician and a nutrition
speciahst. At the time this experiment began he was about normal
in weight. On the other hand, he was about 31 per cent above normal
in basal metabolism, which may offer a partial explanation for his ex-
treme physical weakness evidenced by his inability to participate in the
recreations of other boys of his age.

He entered the University Elementary School in the autumn of 1920.
During the first year he was reported as satisfactory in most of his work.
Music and physical training were noteworthy exceptions. His work
in reading was reported as unsatisfactory during the second term. His
teacher of music reported that he had learned only recently, after great
effort, to sing in tune.

Diagnosis. — He was unable to score in the Gray Oral Reading Test.
The words which were pronounced were recognized slowly and there was
little or no attempt at grouping. He was unable to pronounce such
words as wanted, without, lived, with, pen, feel, and what. There were
frequent substitutions and a considerable amount of guessing. In the
Haggerty Reading Examination, Sigma I, he was able to do only the
first two exercises of Test I. Failure to accomplish more was due to
inability to recognize words. Because of the unusual difficulties which
he encountered in this connection. Word Element Test A and a visual
memory test were given.

In Word Element Test A he missed twenty-two out of thirty first-
grade words, which indicated a very limited sight vocabulary. In six
of these twenty-two words he was able to determine their pronunciation
when they were used in sentences. When two words containing a
given phonetic element were presented, he was able, in seven out of
twenty cases, to pronounce the second word after the first bad been
pronounced for him, and the common element pointed out. The large
number of failures indicated that his ability to recognize and pronounce
the elements of words was distinctly limited. He was able, on the
other hand, to give several words containing a given phonetic element,
which indicated that he recognized similarities in the sounds of words.
The fact that he gave these words very slowly showed that his ability
in this connection was not highly developed. In the visual memory
test he completed sixteen out of twenty exercises accurately. Inasmuch
as excellent readers in the third grade had missed a larger number, it
was concluded that deficiencies in recognition could not be attributed to
pronounced defects in visual memory.

PUPILS ^^'H0 HAD MADE LITTLE OR NO PROGRESS 47

Summary of diagnosis. — The facts brought out in the diagnosis
showed that J. O., a boy of high native inteUigence, had made but Httle
progress in either oral or silent reading. The unusual number and
character of his difficulties in reading were similar to those of a mild
case of dyslexia. The characteristics of the boy most likely to retard
progress were {a) extreme tendency to nervousness and exhaustion, {b)
malnutrition, and {c) lack of interest in reading. The characteristics^
which favored progress were (a) high native intelligence, {h) ability to
work out the pronunciation of some words from the context, and (c)
ability to distinguish the sounds of parts of words.

Remedial instruction. — Remedial instruction was begun with two
very specific purposes in mind: (o) to arouse an interest in reading
and {b) to increase his mastery of the mechanics of reading.

Approximately thirty minutes each day were devoted to remedial
instruction. The first five minutes were usually spent in arousing keen
interest in the story which was to be read that day by relating similar
stories, by studying the pictures which accompanied the story, and by
exciting his curiosity in regard to some of the details. Approximately
fifteen minutes were devoted to reading one or more stories. The plan
usually followed was to ask questions which could be answered by
reading sentences or paragraphs. If difficulties were encountered the
necessary help was given and a record was made of troublesome words.
After the meaning of a short unit was clear, it was usually re-read in
order to secure additional mastery of fundamental habits and associa-
tions. During the remainder of the period, instruction was given which
was calculated to increase his ability to recognize words. It is interesting
to state in this connection that J. O. had been trained in a class in which
phonetics and word analysis had received only a small amount of atten-
tion. Although a majority of the children of the class had made satis-
factory progress, he and one other boy, both of high native intelligence,
had failed to do so.

Several types of training were given in order to increase his ability
to recognize words. If the difficulty was with a phonetic word, other
words containing the same phonetic element were written on the black-
board or selected from a set of printed cards. Their similarities and
differences were studied carefully and several minutes were devoted to
rapid recognition drills. If similar words, such as these and those, or
when and then, were confused, flash-card exercises containing these words
were conducted or they were written on the board in several short
sentences. Evidence of the effectiveness of the remedial instruction

48 REMEDIAL CASES IN READING

was found in the fact that he soon began to do some independent reading
at home. His mother reported that previously he had enjoyed hearing
his parents read to him but he had taken no initiative in reading to
himself.

Results. — To check the progress which had been made the Gray
Oral Reading Test and the Haggerty Reading Examination, Sigma I,
were given in March, 1922. In January, J. O. had been unable to score
in oral reading. In March he made a score of 37.5. In the Haggerty
Reading Examination, Sigma I, he made a score of 3 in Test I and in
Test II, which showed a small amount of progress over the score of 2
for Test I and o for Test II in January. Improvement was also shown
by the fact that he did the "Fore-Exercise" of this test without assist-
ance, while in January he was unable to do any of it independently.

CASE c

A SECOND-GILADE BOY \V&0 HAD MADE BUT LITTLE PROGRESS IN LEARNING TO

READ BECAUSE OF LACK OF INTEREST IN READING, INATTENTION, AND

LACK OF APPLICATION

Introductory statement. — C. S. came from an excellent home in which
he was surrounded by an atmosphere of culture and refinement. His
father was a successful physician and an expert in nutrition. The
mother was studious and had taken courses in education. The parents
were keenly interested in their children and had secured many appro-
priate books for them. C. S. had worn glasses for a year or more and had
experienced considerable eyestrain. His glasses had been refitted
recently by an expert who reported that they were properly adjusted.
He entered the University Elementary School in October, 1920, at the
age of sLx. At the end of one year he was promoted to the second
grade. His work in the first grade had been satisfactory in all subjects
except music. During the autumn of 192 1 it became evident that he
was encountering serious difficulty in reading and he was referred to
a special teacher for diagnosis and remedial treatment.

Diagnosis. — His I.Q. according to the Stanford Revision of the
Binet-Simon Tests was 129, which indicated that he was distinctly
above the standard for his age in general intelligence. He was unable
to score in the Gray Oral Reading Test. The chief difficulty revealed
was inability to recognize many simple words, such as once, pen, saw,
began, and them. When he was able to recognize words he usually
grouped them quite effectively. Whenever difficulties were encountered
his reading became slow and laborious and was accompanied by frequent
repetitions.

PUPILS WHO HAD MADE LITTLE OR NO PROGRESS 49

In Word Element Test A he missed eighteen out of thirty simple
words which indicated that his sight vocabulary was very limited. In
seven of the eighteen errors he was able to pronounce the words when
they were presented in sentences. The fact that he was unable to recog-
nize the words in eleven out of eighteen cases indicated that content
alone was not a sufficient aid in recognition. When two words contain-
ing a given phonetic element were presented he was able to pronounce
the second word in eleven out of thirteen cases after the first word had
been pronounced for him and the common element had been pointed
out. Furthermore, he was able to give other words containing the
same phonetic element when the common element was a so-called
"family." Considerable dilficulty was encountered when the common
element was an initial consonant. The letter r was particularly difiicult
for him and he confused the sounds b and d.

In the Haggerty Reading Examination, Sigma I, which was given
as an individual test, he did the first two exercises. In order to do this,
however, he had to guess the meaning of some of the words as evidenced
by his comments during the examination. He was also able to do the
first two exercises of Test II. He marked the right answer in the third
exercise, but read audibly, "Can a cat talk?" instead of "Can a clock
talk?" From this test and several informal tests which were given,
it was clear that he was able to interpret the meaning of what he read
after difficulties in recognition had been eliminated.

During the period of remedial instruction, it became evident that
some of this trouble was due to his attitude toward reading. He fre-
quently made such comments as "I don't like to read" and "Let's not
read this story." The remedial instruction for C. S. and J. O. (Case B)
was given at the same time. C. S. usually wanted to read the entire
period or not at all. He was unwilling to share or co-operate with J. O.
He resorted to various devices in order that he might dictate the pro-
cedure and monopolize attention. He was inclined to waste much time
through irrelevant comments, apparently to avoid giving the attention
and energy required for the reading exercises.

Summary of diagnosis. — The diagnosis showed clearly that C. S.
was very poor in both oral- and silent-reading accomplishment, his weak-
ness in interpretation being due primarily to difficulties in recogni-
tion. Word Element Test A showed that he had not mastered many
of the simple phonetic elements well enough to recognize them inde-
pendently. On the other hand, the test showed that he was able to
blend elements into words after the elements had been pronounced for

50 REMEDIAL CASES IN READING

him. Furthermore, he was unable to derive the pronunciation of words
solely from a study of the content although he had some ability in
this connection. In the light of the facts secured in the diagnosis the
conclusion was reached that his difficulties in reading related primarily
to recognition and were due to lack of interest in reading, to inattention,
and to lack of application.

Remedial instruction. — In order to secure effective progress remedial
instruction was organized, which included the following: (a) devices to
secure his interest, attention, and co-operation, {b) a large amount of
oral reading of very simple passages with attention directed primarily
to the content, and (c) daily exercises in word analysis based on the
words which caused difficulty.

The remedial period was usually divided into three parts. During
the first four or five minutes an effort was made to secure his interest
and co-operation, and to direct his attention to the content of the selec-
tion to be read. In order to secure his interest he was permitted to
select the story which was to be read, or his curiosity was aroused by
telling him part of a story selected by the teacher or by asking interesting
questions about the pictures which accompanied the story. His atten-
tion was further directed to the content through discussions about
stories which he had read or some topic that would aid in the interpreta-
tion of the story.

The second part of the remedial period, which lasted for fifteen
or twenty minutes, was spent in reading. Since C. S. and J. O. were
taught together the method employed in conducting the reading
exercises had to be changed somewhat from the usual procedure
in individual instruction. Selections were frequently read in which
each boy would take the part of a particular character. This device
proved very effective because of their interest in the dramatic situation.
A second device consisted in having one boy and the teacher close their
books while the other boy read, thus creating an audience situation.
A third device was the stimulation of a spirit of rivalry between the
two boys. This device proved particularly effective in C. S.'s case
inasmuch as he needed some sort of incentive.

During the reading exercises notes were made of the errors which
occurred and the special difficulties which were encountered. These
were made the basis of drill work during the third part of the remedial
period. Sight words and words similar in form or having common
phonetic elements were presented on cards or in sentences which were
printed on cardboard or written on the blackboard. As the remedial

PUPILS WHO HAD MADE LITTLE OR NO PROGRESS 51

instruction progressed, it was found that he made much slower progress
in word mastery than is ordinarily expected.

Results. — The results of tests given in March, 1922, showed the prog-
ress that had been made by that time. On the Gray Oral Reading Test
in which C. S. was unable to score in January, he made a score of
38.75. In the Haggerty Reading Examination, Sigma I, he scored 5 in
Test I and 3 in Test II. This did not show marked progress. However,
there was no tendency to guess at the meaning and it was apparent
that he had acquired the habit of reading for content Furthermore,
he had developed a span of recognition which enabled him to group
words effectively in oral reading. Although very satisfactory progress
had been made during the training period, it was evident that individual
instruction should be continued for a time before he could be returned
advantageously to his class for group instruction.

CASE D

A TWENTY- YEAR OLD YOUTH WHO WAS UNABLE TO READ FIRST-GRADE MATERIAL
EFFECTIVELY, ALTHOUGH HE HAD COiVIPLETED THE WORK OF THE EIGHTH
GRADE OF A RURAL SCHOOL. HIS DIFFICULTIES IN ASSOCIATING SYMBOLS
WITH THEIR MEANINGS AND PRONUNCIATIONS WERE SIMILAR TO THOSE OF
A CASE OF DYSLEXIA

Introductory statement. — In November, 192 1, when the study of the
case began, H. W. was twenty years of age. Although he had graduated
from the eighth grade of a district school and had had two additional
years in a parochial school, he was unable to read first-grade material
fluently and accurately. On the other hand, after a selection had been
read to him he could often reproduce it in great detail. Although
seriously handicapped by his inability to read, he had been able to
complete the required work of each grade by having his lessons read to
him, by listening carefully during class discussions, and by taking
oral examinations.

His home conditions were satisfactory and he had been helped and
encouraged in every way possible. He had made an honest effort to
master the mechanics of reading but had not succeeded. The small
amount of progress which he had made was acquired after he was fifteen
years old through his mother's instruction. The physical examination
which was given revealed no defects which were likely to interfere with
his progress in reading, except slight speech defects. He did not enun-
ciate clearly and he had difficulty in expressing himself fluently.

Preliminary diagnosis. — A preliminary study of the case was made
through the use of standardized tests. The names of the tests, H. W.'s

52

REMEDIAL CASES IN READING

scores, and the standard scores for several grades are included in
Table III.

When the intelligence test was given he was aided on those exercises
which involved reading. The results of the test indicated that he was
slightly below the standard in general intelligence. He scored lower
than an average first-grade pupil in oral-reading accomplishment and
was between the standards for the second and third grades in ability to
interpret what he read, except in the Monroe test in which he did not
score when he read the exercises himself. His rate of silent reading was
very much below the standard for second-grade pupils and indicated that
he encountered serious difficulty in the mechanics of reading.

TABLE III

Tests

The Stanford Revision of the Binet-Simon Tests
The Gray Oral Reading Test

The Burgess Silent Reading Test

The Courtis Silent Reading Test:

Rate

Comprehension

The Haggerty Reading Examination, Sigma I. .

The Monroe Silent Reading Test:
Comprehension

When he read the exercises

When the exercises were read to him . .

H. W.'s Scores

go

25
20

19

32

45
75
II

Grade I
Grade II
Grade III
Grade III

Standard Scores

100
31
43
46

50

113
59

16

Grade II
Grade III
Grade II
Grade III
Grade II
Grade III

6.8 Grade III

An examination of his record sheet in oral reading showed that he
read very slowly, haltingly, and inaccurately. He encountered dif-
ficulties even in the easiest passages, hesitating over simple words, re-
peating frequently, and substituting, inserting, and omitting words. The
number of his errors increased as the passages became more difficult.
Furthermore, total mispronunciations were frequent and he gave every
evidence of being a word-reader.

The silent-reading tests showed that he encountered serious difficulties
in the interpretation of what he read. When the passages and the
directions of the Monroe Silent Reading Test were read to him he scored
noticeably higher than when he read them himself. This indicated that

PUPILS WHO HAD MADE LITTLE OR NO PROGRESS 53

his major difficulties were in recognition rather than interpretation.
Further evidence in support of this conclusion was secured in the intelli-
gence tests in which he was unable to solve many of the problems in
arithmetic or to respond accurately to the directions in the exercises
when he read them himself. On the other hand, he responded quickly
and accurately when the exercises were read to him.

Detailed diagnosis. — Three tests were used in studying his difficulties
in the mechanics of reading. In the Jones Vocabulary Tests he made a
score of 74.5 on the sight list and 75.4 on the phonetic list. Some of the
words which he pronounced differed from the printed words only in one
letter, as hig for dig. In other cases there was only one or two letters
in common, as hurry for hear. Informal tests showed that he had
poor visual memory. For example, after receiving help repeatedly on a
simple word in a selection, he frequently mispronounced it in the sentences
and paragraphs which followed. He explained his inability to recognize
words by saying that something queer seemed to happen in his head —
''that his mind went blank and a word did not mean anything." In
other words, there was no association between the symbol and its meaning
or pronunciation. When a word was pronounced for him, he would
repeat it many times under his breath and he frequently closed his
eyes as if trying to fix the image of it in his mind. Proper names and
such words as why, what, and then caused special difficulty. Words,
such as dog, which called up vivid associations or concrete ideas were
remembered most readily.

In Word Element Test A, he made errors but was able to pronounce
most of the words when they were presented in simple sentences. He
mispronounced many words at sight but corrected them later without
help. He was able to give several words containing a common phonetic
element, but it was significant that he often gave others which did not
belong to the same group. Informal tests showed that he confused
single consonant sounds as b and d, m and n, and that he did not recognize
others when he saw them in such combinations as dr. He did not
distinguish between the vowel sounds in many words, such as will and
well, sit and set, pat and pet. Because he confused these sounds, he
used the words interchangeably in conversation and in reading. When
word difficulties were encountered, he usually tried to determine pro-
nunciations by spelling the words. When this device failed, he was
helpless. He was surprised when shown that the word hand contained
the word and which he knew and the letter h. These facts indicated
clearly that he had not mastered word analysis or phonetics.

54 REMEDIAL CASES IN READING

The short-exposure tests were given in order to study the accuracy
with which he organized isolated letters, words, phrases, and short
sentences. The results of the tests are recorded in Table IV.

These tests showed clearly that he had difficulty in the recognition
of many short words and that he had a narrow span of recognition.
Fourteen errors were made in the recognition of twenty-six isolated
letters. He recognized most of the two-letter words at sight but
encountered difficulty in the recognition of longer words. Several
exposures were necessary for most of the short phrases and many
exposures were necessary for the longer phrases. Additional evidence
of a narrow span of recognition was secured in informal tests in which
the teacher read to him. In such cases, he was unable to recognize
words in thought groups rapidly enough to follow effectively even if
the reader read much slower than the normal rate.

TABLE IV

Recognition Series

Number of

Items in Each

Series

Number of

Errors in Each

Series

Isolated letters

26
18
10
10
10
10

14

2

4

5

21

23

Two-letter words

Three-letter words

Four-letter words.

Two- word phrases

Three- word sentences

A photograph record of his eye-movements in oral reading was
secured. A reproduction of a portion of the oral-reading record appears
in Plate II.

Three significant facts are revealed by the record, (i) He made an
unusual number of fixations per line, which indicates a narrow span of
recognition. (2) He encountered periods of almost complete confusion
as shown in the latter part of the third line of the record, which indicates
inadequate mastery of word recognition. (3) The number of regressive
movements was large, which indicates that he had not mastered the
mechanics of reading sufficiently to have acquired rhythmical habits of
eye-movements. The extent of his difficulties are shown in a striking
way in Table V.

This table shows that he made more fixations per line and a larger
number of regressive movements per line than ordinarily occur in the
case of pupils at the end of the first half of the first grade. His greatest

PUPILS WHO HAD MADE LITTLE OR NO PROGRESS

55

deficiency was in the number of fixations per line. In respect to all
phases of oral reading represented in the photographic record, H. W.
was much below an average first-grade pupil.

TABLE V

Items

IB

Standards-

lA

Standards

Second-

Grade

Standards

H. W.'s
Record

Average number of fixations per line

Average duration of fixations

Average number of regressive movements per
line

i6
19.2

4-4

14-5
12.8

31

12
9.8

2-5

21.4
12.4

5

Informal tests of comprehension revealed some interesting and
significant facts concerning his habits of interpretation, (i) He had
less difficulty with selections in which the stor>' element was strong
than with selections in which interpretation depended on getting a

PLATE II

T II l2 8 |0

north wiere it

IS

cold. The'e h

K (. le 10

as

K 3 4 lb u a

hit

been a

10 II 13 12 1$ 14 l((

snojv. The Jrj

3 4-2 S 14 <• 12

an hai Uden
21 It %

3S S la 9

K) 5 5 14 t

particular point accurately. (2) Because of difficulties in recognition,
he had formed the habit of reading passages several times to pronounce
the words before considering the meaning. (3) He had a limited meaning
vocabulary which resulted in his failure to understand the meanings of
many words in relatively simple passages. (4) After hearing a story read
once, he could usually read a part, or all, of it fairly well because of his
unusual power of retention. (5) He had little or no difficulty in answer-

56 REMEDIAL CASES IN READING

ging memory questions but had numerous difficulties in comprehendin
material of a problematic nature and in thinking independently about
it. (6) When he was unable to understand a passage which he had
read himself, he was usually able to discuss its meaning intelligently
after it was read to him.

Summary of diagnosis. — The diagnosis showed (a) that H. W.
encountered unusual difficulties in the recognition of words, {h) that
he had a limited sight vocabulary, {c) that he had little or no knowledge
of the elements of words, {d) that he was frequently unable to remember
a word after he had been told repeatedly what it was, {e) that his eye-
movements were very irregular and immature, (/) that his span of
recognition was very narrow, {g) that he read very slowly owing to
difficulties in recognition, and Qi) that he was weak in the interpretation
of what he read, due primarily to difficulties in recognition and to the
fact that he had not formed the habit of thinking about the content
while reading. In fact, all of the information which was secured showed
that he encountered as much difficulty in associating symbols with their
meaning and pronunciation as real cases of dyslexia encounter. The
fundamental differences between H. W. and most cases of dyslexia were
that he was extremely eager to learn to read, he was able to follow direc-
tions intelligently, and he was able to hold himself to assigned exercises
for several hours each day.

Remedial instruction. — The remedial instruction which was planned
aimed (a) to develop ability to recognize words independently and to
associate meanings with them quickly and accurately, {h) to establish
effective eye-movements and to increase his span of recognition, and
ic) to stimulate permanent interests in reading. Because of his maturity
he was given forty-five minutes of individual instruction each day.

Method of procedure during the first lessons. — On account of his
serious difficulties in recognizing words, it was necessary at first to use
primer material and charts. The use of simple, familiar selections,
the content of which could be mastered easily, aided in developing
habits of fluent recognition. Sentences, or short units, were prefaced
by suggestions concerning the content, such as "The next line tells where
the girl lived" or "This paragraph tells what the hen did with the
seed." First, he read silently and then aloud. As a result, he anticipated
words from a study of the content and the associations between meanings
and symbols were accordingly more effective. Words which he did not
know were pronounced for him. A record was kept of these words and
used at the end of the period in exercises which will be described later.

PUPILS WHO HAD MADE LITTLE OR NO PROGRESS 57

Occasionally, selections were printed on charts. After reading a
selection on a chart as a unit, a duplicate chart was cut into strips
containing single sentences. He was asked to read the first sentence
on the chart and then to find the strip containing the same sentence.
The second chart was built up sentence by sentence by matching with
the first. He was then directed to find the line which says, ''The dog
is large." When he was able to recognize the sentences in any order,
they were cut into phrases and matched with those of the original chart.
They were then cut into shorter phrases, and occasionally into words.
When he was unable to recognize a word or phrase he referred to the
chart where he found it in its original setting. This method also
enabled him to recognize words in thought groups. After studying
a selection in this way he was asked to re-read it orally in order to get
the story as a whole and to develop habits of fluent, accurate reading.
Through exercises of this type, his reading vocabulary was soon suffi-
ciently large to enable him to prepare short stories at home which were
read the following day.

The daily recitation period. — As soon as he had made some progress
in reading independently, forty-five minutes were spent each day in a
variety of helpful exercises. Assigned selections which were prepared
at home were discussed and re-read. Questions and suggestions were
given to arouse an interest in the reading for the day and to direct his
attention to the content. If a selection was not familiar, the story was
told briefly and some of the more difficult words were used in sentences
similar to those which appeared in the story. This enabled him to
anticipate words and prevented the formation of incorrect associations.
He was encouraged to discuss these selections; he was asked questions
which tested his comprehension of what he had read, and he was asked
to read passages aloud. Furthermore, suggestions were given to aid in
fluent reading. The words which gave him trouble were noted and
emphasized during the drill period. Ten or more minutes of each period
were devoted to drill exercises calculated to increase his ability to
recognize words and to increase his span of recognition. As soon as he
was able to recognize words with considerable rapidity, sight-reading
exercises were assigned.

Increasing ability in recognition. — Exercises to increase his ability
to recognize words independently were based on the words which he
failed to recognize during the reading period. At first, these words
were used in sentences, similar to those which appeared in the reading
selections. After a considerable amount of blackboard drill had been

58 REMEDIAL CASES IN READING

carried on, parts of each sentence were erased, leaving on the board the
phrases which caused difficulty. Finally, single words were left on
the board in order to test his ability to recognize them quickly.

He was next taught to recognize new words by comparing them
with familiar words. When he failed to recognize threw, the words
flew and grew, which he knew, were written on the board. When
threw was presented again he recognized the common element and was
able to pronounce it. Other words containing ew were then written on
the board. He was also asked to name words containing thr. Inasmuch
as he had unusual difficulty in learning to recognize words, a great deal
of assistance and much repetition were necessary. For this reason,
phrases and short sentences containing the words which he encountered
frequently and missed repeatedly were printed on cards and used in
quick-perception drills. When longer and more difficult words were
encountered, he frequently omitted final syllables or became confused
in his attempt to pronounce polysyllabic words. In such cases, he was
shown a series of words, such as come, become, becoming, becomingly.
Furthermore, commonly used prefixes and sufl&xes were noted and
words containing them were listed. Before many polysyllabic words
were recognized, training in syllabication was necessary.

Establishing regular eye-movements and increasing his span of recogni-
tion.— Inasmuch as most of the irregularities of his eye-movements
were due to difficulties in recognition, his eye-movements became much
more regular as his ability to recognize words increased. Several
specific exercises were necessary, however, to secure rapid improvement.
He was asked to follow the page while the teacher read to him. Because
of his tendency to see only one word at a time, he was unable at first to
recognize words as rapidly as the teacher read. The passages were
then read more slowly and the phrasing emphasized. Sometimes a
pencil was passed under groups of words which formed thought units,
as The boy saw the dog and ran away. After following the reading of a
page in this way, he was usually able to proceed more rapidly and to group
words more effectively. This lessened the number of fixations per line
as well as his tendency to repeat. On the other hand, it increased the
regularity of his eye-movements. The habit of recognizing a group of
words at each fixation was further emphasized by another exercise.
Two-word phrases, such as said he, come again, and as though, were
printed on cards and used in flash-card exercises. As soon as he was
able to recognize two-word phrases, longer phrases and sentences were
introduced.

PUPILS WHO HAD MADE LITTLE OR NO PROGRESS 59

Training in phonetics. — After eight weeks of instruction had been
given, some training in phonetics was introduced because he was unable
to distinguish differences in many words which were more or less similar
in form. This was due to his inability to distinguish differences in the
sounds of such letters as b, d, and p, m and n, and many vowels. The
word which gave him trouble on a given occasion was written on the
board. Other words containing a common phonetic element were sup-
plied by him or the teacher. This afforded frequent opportunity for
the association of sounds and their written symbols. The list of words
was then recorded in a notebook and he was asked to add to the list all
words containing the same element which he encountered in his reading
during the next day. These were looked over and corrected. The
following were also taught in the same way: single consonants, compound
consonants, short and long vowels, and vowel digraphs. The notebook
was used as a dictionary of familiar words and referred to frequently.
New words were added from time to time. After a short vowel had
been taught in many combinations, several words containing it, but
with different initial consonants and endings, were presented in miscel-
laneous order, such as fan, fat, sat, sad, glad. This enabled him to
recognize the sound of short a in any combination. A chart containing
these words was used in frequent reviews. When all of the short vowels
had been taught a chart was introduced on which words containing them
had been printed, such as ran, fed, dot, tin, cut. He soon discontinued
his attempts to recognize words through spelling and applied his knowl-
edge of phonetics in the recognition of new words. He also began to
distinguish such words as tell and till, dig and big, and din and dim.

Stimidating permanent interest in reading. — Because of his maturity,
the problem of selecting material which was of interest and at the same
time simple enough for him to read was a difl&cult one. He appreciated
the situation when told that it would be necessary to begin with primer
material and expressed a willingness to read anything, if he could be
taught to read. The best selections were chosen from a large number of
primers and first readers. As soon as he was able to read second-grade
material a greater variety of selections was available Animal stories
and stories of adventure were used extensively. Because he had been
deprived of the pleasure of reading such stories in his childhood, he
read them at this time with genuine interest. As soon as he was able
to read independently, supplementary reading was assigned. A part
of a story was read in order to arouse his interest. He would then take
the story home to complete it. Later, many simple books were begun

6o

REMEDIAL CASES IN READING

during sight-reading exercises. When he had read enough of a story to
become interested in it, he was given the book to complete by himself.
He was encouraged to discuss what he read but was not held to specific
assignments. Occasionally, when the thought of a passage was not quite
clear, he would bring the book to the classroom to discuss the points
which he did not understand. Since he needed to read a great deal at
this stage of his progress, he was encouraged to visit the library and to
select books for himself. Suitable books were also brought to the
classroom, from which he made selections. Keen interest in reading
was aroused by these methods and he did much voluntary reading.

TABLE VI

Tests

November Scores

March Scores

Standard
Scores

The Gray Oral Reading Test

The Burgess Silent Reading Test

The Courtis Silent Reading Test :
Rate

Comprehension

The Haggerty Reading Examination,
Sigma I:
Test I

25 Grade I
20 Grade II
19 Grade III
32 Grade III

45
75

II

0

0

142.5
51.25
46.25

50

97 Grade II
Grade III

85.7 Grade II
Grade III
Grade IV

19 Grade II
Grade III
Grade IV

18 Grade II
Grade III
Grade IV

6 Grade III

31
43
46
50

84
113
59
78
89

12

Test II

16

20

8

The Monroe Silent Reading Test:
Comprehension

14
18

6.8

Results. — ^After sixteen weeks of training, he was given the tests
again. The scores which he made in November, 1921, his March scores,
and the standard scores for several grades are included in Table VI.

The results of the tests showed very satisfactory progress. He had
reached the third-grade standards in all phases of reading except in rate
of silent reading according to the Courtis test and in comprehension
according to the Monroe test. He closely approximated the fourth-grade
standards in comprehension according to the Courtis Silent Reading
Test and the Haggerty Reading Examination, Sigma I. Although
considerable progress had been made, it was accomplished only at the
sacrifice of a tremendous amount of time and energy. The fact that

PUPILS WHO HAD MADE LITTLE OR NO PROGRESS 6 1

H.W. was more or less mature, was determined to learn to read, and was
able to concentrate on assignments for several hours each day, made
progress possible. When the reading was interrupted for one or two
days, it was necessary to repeat much of the early training before he
could proceed with more advanced work. Even under normal condi-
tions, there were days when he encountered great difficulty in reading
the simplest passages. It was evident at the end of the training period
that special training should be given every day for a long period of time
before he could read independently.

SUMMARY OF CAUSES

The causes of little or no progress in learning to read in the four
cases which have been described may be summarized briefly as follows:
(a) general immaturity; {h) partial deafness; (c) poor visual memory;
((/) timidity; (e) malnutrition; (/) extreme nervousness ; (^) inattention;
{h) lack of application; (/) lack of interest in reading; and {j) dyslexia.
Anyone who attempts a detailed diagnosis of a pupil who has made but
little progress in reading should supplement the list of causes men-
tioned above with those which are described in chapter iii. Further-
more, he should search for additional causes until he has found a
satisfactory explanation of a pupil's difficulty.

CONCLUSIONS CONCERNING REMEDIAL INSTRUCTION

The following suggestions concerning remedial instruction are
based on the results of the investigations reported in this chapter.
(i) Instruction must begin, as a rule, with the simplest rudiments of
reading. (2) It should be given preferably in the form of individual
instruction. (3) The teacher must secure the complete confidence and
co-operation of the pupil. (4) Selections must be chosen which will
stimulate the interest, excite the curiosity, and hold the attention of the
pupil. Consequently, the selections used must vary with the age of the
subject. In all cases, however, they must be very simple. (5) The
methods employed must result in vivid, lasting impressions. (6) The
opportunity to associate symbols with their meaning and pronunciation
must be repeated until desirable habits are established. (7) The teacher
must expect slower progress than in the case of pupils who do not
encounter unusual difficulties in learning to read. Furthermore, new
habits and associations must be introduced slowly. Sufficient time must
be allowed for the mastery of even very simple habits. (8) The most
satisfactory results will be secured only through the practice which comes
from reading a large amount of material with a genuine motive.

CHAPTER V

PUPILS WHO ENCOUNTERED SERIOUS DIFFICULTIES IN
INTERPRETATION

The four pupils whose cases are reported in this chapter had made
considerable progress in all phases of reading, but encountered real
difi&culties in understanding what they read. Three of these pupils
were from the fifth, sixth, and eighth grades. The fourth was an
unclassified pupil who had attended school for only a short time, her
instruction in reading having been given largely by a tutor. It is both
interesting and significant that pupils who are reported as weak in
interpretation are usually middle- or upper-grade pupils. The explana-
tion doubtless lies in the fact that reading accomplishment in the lower
grades is judged primarily in terms of the mastery of the mechanics of
reading. Hence serious difi&culties in interpretation are usually not
noted until pupils begin to study content subjects independently. In
order to reduce the possibility of poor habits of interpretation in the
middle and upper grades, systematic study of the reading accomplish-
ments of children should be made very early in the primary grades.

Pupils who are unable to interpret what they read can be located
easily through the use of standardized and informal reading tests.
Several tests should be used inasmuch as pupils who encounter serious
difficulties in interpretation may score relatively high in a particular
test. Furthermore, it is necessary to determine a pupil's characteristic
difficulties in different types of reading exercises before a comprehensive
program of remedial instruction can be organized. The detailed study
of the four cases reported in this chapter revealed the following signif-
icant facts: (a) the pupils scored relatively low in most of the
comprehension tests; (b) their difi&culties in interpretation were far
more serious than those in recognition ; (c) they had inadequate meaning
vocabularies; (d) their reading experiences were limited; and (e) they
did little or no reading on their own initiative.

Although these four cases possessed several common characteristics,
they differed widely in respect to their difi&culties in interpretation.
E. G., who had mastered the mechanics of reading, had not established
the habit of directing her attention to the content of what she read or
of thinking independently about it. M. T. was inaccurate and erratic

62

DIFFICULTIES IN INTERPRETATION 63

in interpretation, supplying ideas which were not found in the passages.
J. P. interpreted simple interesting selections effectively but failed to
interpret passages of a factual or problematic type. M. G. was an
unusual case who failed in interpretation because of limited mental
capacity and general immaturity. Inasmuch as these pupils encoun-
tered common weaknesses in interpretation, as well as individual diffi-
culties, the remedial instruction which was planned was quite similar
in many respects and distinctly different in others.

In the reports which follow, most of the methods and devices which
are described relate to improvement in interpretation. In some cases,
however, pupils encountered difficulties other than those in interpreta-
tion. In order to present all the important facts concerning each case,
the various types of remedial instruction which were used are described.
It should be understood, however, that the major problem in each case
was that of establishing appropriate habits of interpretation.

CASE E

A FIFTH-GRADE GIRL WHO HAD NOT ESTABLISHED THE HABIT OF DIRECTING

HER ATTENTION TO THE CONTENT OF WTIAT SHE READ OR OF

THINKING INTJEPENDENTLY ABOUT IT

Introductory statement. — In January^ 1922, E. G. was thirteen
years of age. She was somewhat overgrown, muscular, awkward,
nervous, and timid. In 1920, when she entered the school in which this
investigation was made, it was almost impossible for her to adapt
herself to the conventions of school life. She evidenced, according to
the statement of her teacher, '' the characteristics of a caged wild animal."
She lived in a very poor part of the city and came from an environment
which was anything but stimulating. Very little accurate information
could be secured in regard to her early school history. During the
two years which she had attended this school, her work in the content
subjects had been very poor although her work in arithmetic had been
satisfactory.

Preliminary diagnosis. — A preliminary study was made of the case
through the use of five standardized tests. The names of the tests,
the scores which were made, and the standard fifth-grade scores are
included in Table VII.

The scores indicate that E. G. was a satisfactory oral reader and a
fluent silent reader, that she was slightly below the average in general
mentality and that she was considerably retarded in the interpretation
of what she read. An analysis of the records secured during the oral-

64

REMEDIAL CASES IN READING

reading test showed that she read simple passages fluently and accurately.
In difficult passages, on the other hand, she was a typical word-reader
making numerous careless errors on simple words and gross errors on
polysyllabic words. In the cases of many pupils, difficulties in recogni-
tion account for ineffective interpretations. However, inasmuch as
the silent-reading tests which were given to E. G. contained very simple
passages, the tentative conclusion was drawn that her failure in inter-
pretation was not due primarily to difficulties in recognition. In order

TABLE VII

Tests

Standard

Fifth-Grade

Scores

The Illinois Intelligence Test

The Gray Oral Reading Test

The Burgess Silent Reading Test

The Courtis Silent Reading Test, No. 2 :

Rate

Comprehension

The Thomdike-McCall Silent Reading Test,

100
48
50

168

93

48

to determine the validity of this conclusion and to secure additional
information concerning her reading habits a more detailed diagnosis of
the case was made.

Detailed diagnosis. — In Word Recognition Test A, she made a
perfect score which indicated a thorough mastery of first-grade words.
In Word Element Test A she pronounced the words readily but encoun-
tered serious difficulty in giving other words containing given phonetic
elements This indicated that she recognized phonetic elements more
readily by sight than by sound. The short-exposure tests rev^ealed a
remarkably wide span of recognition. She recognized, in thirty-five
exposures, thirty expressions varying in length from for fun to The bright
sun shines. The results of these tests indicated clearly that failure in
interpretation could not be attributed to difficulties in recognition.
Furthermore, the results of the short-exposure tests gave a partial
explanation for her high score in rate of silent reading

Photographic records of her eye-movements were made for both
oral and silent reading. Owing to defects in the silent- reading record
it was impossible to tabulate the facts relating to silent reading. In
Table VIII E. G.'s records in oral reading are compared with the fifth-
grade standards.

DIFFICULTIES IN INTERPRETATION

65

The entries in this table show clearly that E. G.'s habits were similar
to those of the average pupil of her grade with respect to the items
compared. The silent-reading record which was somewhat indistinct
showed that she had unusually satisfactory eye-movements in silent
reading.

In order to determine more accurately the nature of her difficulties
in interpretation several informal tests were arranged. Short fables
containing only one main idea, simple narratives, the incidents of
which could be easily related in sequence, and fairy stories which required
wide use of the imagination were assigned in turn. She missed the main
points of the fables and was unable to reproduce them. She could give
only a few disconnected facts from the narratives and these were usually
unimportant. She enjoyed the fairy stories most, but got only general

TABLE VIII

Items

E. G.'s
Scores

Fifth-Grade
Standards

Average number of fixations per line

Average duration of fixations

9
7.6

2

8.7

7.2

1-4

Average number of regressive movements per line

impressions from them and was unable to tell why she liked them.
When asked, "Where did the fairy live?" she was uncertain. When
asked, " What kind of fairy was she ? " it was found that she had formed
no opinion, although an accurate interpretation of the story depended
very largely on the answer to this question. When unable to answer
a question she was frequently shown the particular paragraph containing
the required information. Even with this help she failed frequently
and it was necessary to read the passage to her. After a series of
informal reading exercises of this t>^e it became very clear that she
had never formed the habit of directing her attention to the content
of what she read or of thinking about it independently.

Summary of diagnosis. — The diagnosis showed clearly that E. G.
read aloud satisfactorily, that she recognized simple words rapidly
and accurately, that she read silently at a relatively high rate,
and that she had a wide span of recognition. Her only significant
difficulty in the mechanics of reading was inability to recognize polysyl-
labic words accurately. On the other hand, the diagnosis showed
that she was decidedly weak in all phases of interpretation, that she

66 REMEDIAL CASES IN READING

failed to direct her attention to the content of what she read, and that
she did little or no independent thinking while reading.

Remedial instruction. — The foregoing diagnosis made it clear that
the problems of remedial instruction for E. G. related almost entirely
to the cultivation of effective habits of interpretation, including the
habit of looking for meanings in all reading exercises and the habit of
thinking independently while reading. Although she encountered
difficulties in the recognition of polysyllabic words, it was concluded
that training in the recognition of such words should be postponed
until habits of effective interpretation of simple passages had been
developed. In order to insure rapid progress in the development of
effective reading habits, twenty-iive minutes of individual instruction
were given each day.

Cultivating the habit of looking for meaning while reading. — Short
and very simple selections were used at first. She was asked to read
these aloud in order to enable the teacher to discover some of her diffi-
culties. Frequently a part of an assigned story was told to her before
the reading began in order to give her some idea of its content and to
stimulate her interest. She was then asked to read one short unit after
another. Each was prefaced by a suggestion or question to direct her
attention to its content, such as "The next paragraph tells who helped
the girl" or "How do you think the fox escaped?" "Read the next
paragraph to see if you were right or if the story tells it differently."
Meanings of words were supplied when she was confused and other
questions were asked from time to time to test her ability to interpret
passages. When she failed to get the meaning she was asked to re-read
one or more paragraphs or they were read to her and the important
points were emphasized.

It was several weeks before she could read an entire selection, even
a very short one, and reproduce it effectively or answer questions
concerning its content intelligently. The first assignments for inde-
pendent reading were fables or short selections containing only one or
two significant points. In this connection she was given specific sugges-
tions or questions to direct her attention to the content, such as "Why
were the animals in this story timid ?" or "What taught them not to be
afraid?" Although the entire story in some cases was less than a page
in length, she frequently had to re-read before she was able to answer
the questions satisfactorily.

Inasmuch as she became confused when different t\pes of stories
were read, she was allowed to study only one type until she was able to

DIFFICULTIES IN INTERPRETATION 67

interpret that kind of story successfully. She was given fables for a
few days until she formed the habit of looking for the main point. In
order to avoid monotony, the assignments were varied. Sometimes
she was asked to read silently and to reproduce the story or to name the
important points. At other times she was given such exercises as the
following: ''Write the name of the animal that lost its tail" or "If you
think the deer was wise write the word yes; if not, write the word wo."
At first, when she was asked to reproduce a fable, she confused the order in
which the incidents occurred, omitted important points or forgot whether
it was a fox or a bear which was mentioned in the fable. It was necessary
in such cases to aid her by asking questions which directed her attention
to the important ideas and which recalled the facts in correct sequence.
When told in advance that she would be asked to reproduce a selection,
she read more carefully.

Simple narratives were next assigned. These were also read in
short units at lirst. Later she was given lists of questions to use as a
guide while reading. After reading the selection, she was asked to look
over the questions again and to re-read the parts of the story which she
did not remember. After a number of selections were studied in this
way, she began to assume some responsibility for accurate interpretations
and she read more carefully. Her own interest in her progress was evi-
denced by such questions as, "Did I tell that story well?" or by such
remarks as, "I answered the questions without help today."

She was also assigned animal stories, fairy tales, stories of adventure,
and imaginative stories of all kinds. As soon as she made satisfactory
progress in interpreting simple passages, more difficult selections were
assigned. After she had read orally, passages were discussed, meanings
were explained, and thought-provoking questions were asked. When
she read silently she was given specific directions or a list of questions
to aid her in effective interpretation. The questions which were used
in the study of one story follow.

1. What did the Indian use for money ?

2. Who was his friend?

3. What did the elk say about his wampum ?

4. What did the elk promise him ?

5. Where was the Indian to find the wampimi, and what was he to do
with it ?

6. Describe his trip.

7. What happened when he struck the rock ?

8. What did he forget ?

68

REMEDIAL CASES IN READING

9. What reminded him of his promise ?

10. What did he then do with the wampum ?

11. What happened to him?

12. How long was he away from home? What changes did he find when
he returned ?

13. What did he try to teach his people ?

14. Do you think he deserved his punishment ? Why ?

Encouraging independent thinking. — After reading a selection and
discussing its content, questions were asked to direct her attention to
more subtle meanings and to cause her to think independently about
what she read. For example, she was asked such questions as "Why
did one man in this story fail and the other succeed?" "How might
the king's subjects be benefited later by this experience of the king?"
"WTiat reason, other than the one mentioned in the story, might the
girl's father have had in mind when he asked her to keep her promise ?"
"In which of the two places described would you rather live ?" "W'hy ?"
Through the use of a variety of selections, by explaining references, and
by giving additional information, an effort was made to broaden her
background of experience, to enlarge her meaning vocabulary, to stimu-
late a permanent interest in reading and to develop habits of effective
thinking w^hile reading.

Results. — Instruction was given for nine weeks in January-, February,
and March, 1922. Inasmuch as she was absent two weeks on account of

TABLE IX

Tests

January
Scores

March
Scores

Standard

Fifth-Grade

Scores

The Gray Oral Reading Test

49
44

193

36.5

61.25
50

210.5
60
40

48

The Burgess Silent Reading Test

The Courtis Silent Reading Test:

Rate

Comprehension

The Thorndike-McCall Silent Reading Test

50

168

93
48

illness she had only seven weeks of training. The tests were given again
at the end of the training period. Her preliminary scores, the scores
which she made after training, and the standard scores for her grade are
included in Table IX.

The scores indicate that at the end of the training period she was
far above the average for her grade in oral reading and in rate of silent
reading, and that she was up to standard in the Burgess Silent Reading

DIFFICULTIES IN INTERPRETATION 69

Test. Her scores in the other tests indicate that she had made consider-
able progress in interpretation but that she was not yet up to the standard
for her grade. Additional individual instruction was, therefore, recom-
mended.

CASE F

A SIXTH-GRADE GIRL WHO WAS INACCURATE AND ERRATIC IN INTERPRETATION
BECAUSE OF A LIMITED MEANING VOCABULARY, AN OVER-CULTIVATED
IMAGINATION, AND POOR HABITS OF THINKING WHILE READING

Introductory statement. — In January, 1922, M. T. was twelve
years old. She was pale, thin, and nervous, wore glasses, and was well-
dressed, neat, and clean. She was also overconscientious and emotional.
It became evident early in the diagnosis that she had a narrow back-
ground of experience and a limited vocabulary. She was transferred
from the seventh grade to the sixth early in the fall. Her teacher
reported that she was doing unsatisfactory work even in the sixth
grade although she was interested in her work and put forth every effort
to succeed. The content subjects caused her the most difficulty.

Preliminary diagnosis. — A preliminary study was made of the case
through the use of standardized tests. The scores which she made and
the standard sixth-grade scores are also included in Table X.

TABLE X

,, rp , Standard

Tests f^„T-/ Sixth-Grade

bcores

The Illinois Intelligence Test g6 100

The Gray Oral Reading Test 40 49

The Burgess Silent Reading Test 38 50

The Courtis Silent Reading Test, No. 2:

Rate 176 191

Comprehension 70 95

The Thorndike-McCall Silent Reading Test 54 53 . 7

The scores show that M. T. was slightly below the average in general
mentality, that she was a slow, fairly accurate oral reader, and that she
was somewhat retarded in rate of silent reading and in the interpretation
of what she read. In this connection it should be noted that the compre-
hension scores varied widely. In the Thorndike-McCall test in which
she read for specific purposes under the guidance of definite questions,
she scored slightly above the average for her grade In the Burgess
and the Courtis tests, which are somewhat simpler in many respects,
she made less satisfactory scores. These differences were striking and
suggested the need of further diagnosis.

70

REMEDIAL CASES IN READING

An analysis of the records secured during the oral-reading test
showed that she made few errors on the simple passages of the test.
These were chiefly repetitions of short words or parts of words. She
encountered no real difficulties in word recognition except in the case of
polysyllabic words. Hence it did not seem probable that her difficulties
in interpretation were due primarily to inability to recognize words.
In order to secure additional information concerning her habits of
recognition and interpretation, a more detailed diagnosis was made.

Detailed diagnosis. — Three tests were given to determine specific
difficulties in the mechanics of reading. In Word Recognition Test A
she made only two errors, which indicated a very satisfactory- master^'

I 2 3

not

dafk.

PLATE III

5 f <• T 8 9

at the

10 10 s

The br ght^mooji shope in

Z I 4- 3 8 5 11 7 10 (, 9 (2 (J

window

Peter (!ou

se?

e\ 3ry:hi]ig i

n the

4 45 T6.T94<. (.3 <,

2 1 3 5 4

n./All i.t onc(i ji

4 14 19 3 (,

2 13 S 4 (, t g

roor^i./'All 4t onc^ lie heaijd a noijse. Peter

3 <. (, 8

of simple words. In Word Element Test A she pronounced the words
readily and was able to give other words containing the same phonetic
elements. In the short-exposure tests it was necessary to present many
of the short phrases, such as for fun, a second or third time before she
recognized them. Even a greater number of exposures was necessary
in the case of long phrases. These three tests showed that she had a
good sight vocabulary of simple words and that she was able to pronounce
phonetic words easily. On the other hand, they showed that she had
a very narrow span of recognition which doubtless accounted, in part,
for her slow rate in both silent and oral reading.

Photographic records of her eye-movements were next secured in
order to study her habits of recognition in greater detail. A portion of
her silent-reading record is reproduced in Plate III.

DIFFICULTIES IN INTERPRETATION

71

Her record revealed a very interesting characteristic of her reading,
namely, that she proceeded with few irregularities from left to right
along some lines, and that there were many irregularities in other lines.
Additional facts are shown in Table XI.

She was below the standard for her grade in both oral and silent
reading with respect to the number and duration of fixations and the
number of regressive movements. She made a smaller number of
fixations per line in silent reading than in oral reading but the number of
regressive movements per line and the duration of fixations in silent
reading were the same or greater than in oral reading. These facts

T.\BLE XI

Oral Reading

Silent Reading

Items

M. T.'s
Record

Sixth-Grade
Standards

M. T.'s
Record

Sixth-Grade
Standards

Average number of fixations per line

Average duration of fixations

Average number of regressive move-
ments per line

12
8.4

3

8.9
7-3

1-4

10

8.9

3

7-3
5-9

I 6

indicate that there was only a small amount of difference in the character
of her eye-movements in oral and silent reading. The study showed
clearly that remedial instruction was necessary to reduce the number
and duration of fixations and to increase the regularity of her eye-
movements.

In order to secure detailed information concerning the nature of her
difficulties in interpretation, several informal tests were given. Fables,
narratives, folk stories, and fairy tales were assigned in turn. She
responded readily but her reproductions and answers to questions
were frequently irrelevant or not true to fact. She used some of the
less familiar words glibly but inaccurately. She attached wrong mean-
ings to words which often caused her to misinterpret the content. Stories
containing descriptions of many details were warped and colored by her
imagination. Although she could talk fluently about the stories she did
little independent thinking about their content. When asked to express
her own opinion or to tell why a certain thing happened, it was evident
from the nature of her answers that she had given little or no thought
to such problems. On the other hand, when she was guided in her reading
by lists of questions, she was able to interpret the passages much more
accurately. It was in connection with cursory reading which was not

72 REMEDIAL CASES IN READING

controlled or guided by questions or specific purposes that she read least
effectively.

Summary of diagnosis. — The diagnosis showed that M. T. read
orally with a fair degree of accuracy but that she read very slowly on
account of a narrow span of recognition, long fixations, and a large
number of regressive movements per line. The diagnosis also showed that
she was below the average for her grade in ability to interpret what she
read and to think independently about the content. These difficulties
in interpretation were due to a limited meaning vocabulary, to an
overcultivated imagination, and to ineffective habits of thinking while
reading.

Remedial instruction. — She was given individual instruction each
day. The twenty-five-minute period was usually divided as follows:
(c) the first few minutes were devoted to reports on assigned work or to
discussions based on outside reading; (b) the greater part of the period
was spent in reading various t}^es of selections, emphasizing accurate
interpretation and independent thinking; and (c) the remainder of the
period was given to drill exercises to increase her span of recognition,
to establish regular eye-movements, and to develop independence in
the recognition of polysyllabic words.

Curbing her imagination by holding her to facts. — She was assigned
short simple selections at first. It was found that when she was asked
to reproduce what she read she added many details and changed parts
of stories to suit her fancy. In order to overcome this tendency she
was assigned one or two definite things to look for while reading and her
responses were confined as far as possible to answers to specific questions.
Fables were frequently assigned and she was asked to express the most
important points in one or two brief sentences. She was next assigned
short narratives and was given a list of questions to use as a guide while
reading. In answering these questions, emphasis was placed on report-
ing incidents or important points in correct sequence. Later she was
asked to reproduce short selections. If it was necessary, occasional
questions were asked to direct her attention to the main points of the
story and to hold her to the facts as they were given in the selection.
Animal stories and selections based on historical events were assigned
in turn. As soon as she was able to interpret simple stories and factual
material satisfactorily, more difficult selections were assigned.

Encouraging independent thinking. — After considerable progress had
been made in accurate interpretation, she was asked thought-provoking
questions based on the content of selections and she was encouraged to

DIFFICULTIES IN INTERPRETATION 73

express her own opinion and to think independently about what she read.
Such questions as the following were asked: "Why did the plan of the
villagers fail?" "Who might have saved the situation?" "What
might he have gained by helping?" "Was he right or wrong in refus-
ing?" "Why?" "If he had helped, how might the story have
ended?" "What is your opinion of the judge ?" Her ability to inter-
pret a passage and to follow directions was tested by such exercises as
"If you agree with what the girl said draw a line under the word 'agree';
if you do not, draw a ring around it."

Enlarging her meaning vocabulary. — Her failure to interpret a selec-
tion or to answer questions about it was frequently due to the fact that
she did not know the meaning of words. For example, she confused
cavalry with calvary and said it had something to do with a cemetery;
she confused turquois with tortoise in a story describing the walls of a
palace set with precious stones, and she failed to interpret a story about
a farmer who had many bams because she confused the word granaries
with canaries, and concluded that he had many birds. It was evident
that many commonly used words were unfamiliar to her and it was neces-
sary to explain their meanings before she understood selections which
contained them. She was frequently asked to read selections aloud
and when it was clear that she did not understand the meaning of a
word, a definition was supplied. She was encouraged to use the dic-
tionary and was held responsible for the meanings of words in selections
which were assigned for home reading. A wide variety of stories were
read in class and were suggested for outside reading in order to extend
her experience and to enlarge her vocabulary.

Increasing her span of recognition. — At first she recognized one word
at a time. Accordingly, thought groups were emphasized, and she was
asked occasionally to re-read a paragraph after its meaning was clear
in order to group the words more eflfectively. Phrases with which she
had diflSculty were sometimes written on the board, or certain phrases
in given sentences were underscored in order that she might determine
which words belonged together. Quick-perception exercises were also
used to increase her speed and accuracy of recognition. As soon as
she had gained some independence in recognition and her span of recogni-
tion began to increase, her tendency to repeat became less prominent.

Training in the pronunciation of words. — Help was given on the
phonetic elements which were not known and which interfered with the
accurate recognition and pronunciation of simple words. For example,
in one story, she called wren, wern, and therefore failed to understand

74

REMEDIAL CASES IN READING

what she read. Drill exercises were then arranged based on words
containing wr or any other word element which caused difficulty.
Polysyllabic words which she was unable to pronounce were divided
into syllables to aid her in pronouncing them. Lists of words, containing
the prefixes or suffixes which she failed to recognize readily, were also
studied and used in drill exercises until they were recognized readily.

Results. — The training was continued for a period of nine weeks.
Her preliminary scores, the final scores, and the standard scores for her
grade are included in Table XII.

TABLE XII

Tests

January Scores

March Scores

Standard

Sixth-Grade

Scores

The Gray Oral Reading Test

40
38

176
70

54

46.25
44

162
91.4

55

40

The Burgess Silent Reading Test

The Courtis Silent Reading Test :

Rate

Comprehension

The Thorndike-McCall Silent Reading
Test

50

191
95

53-7

The scores indicate that she had made some progress in oral reading
and considerable progress in comprehension, but was not yet up to the
standards for her grade in most phases of reading. Her March score
in rate of silent reading was below her January score. This reduction
in her rate of reading was probably due to the unusual amount of care
which she exercised during the test in order to answer the questions
correctly. Her rate may also have been retarded for a time while
acquiring the habit of directing her attention to the content.

CASE G

AN EIGHTH-GRADE BOY WHO FAILED TO INTERPRET EFFECTIVELY PASSAGES
WHICH WERE PROBLEMATIC IN CHARACTER OR WHICH REQUIRED INDE-
PENDENT THINKING, BECAUSE OF A NARROW BACKGROUND OF EXPERIENCE,
A LIMITED MEANING VOCABULARY, FAILURE TO DIRECT ATTENTION TO
THE CONTENT, AND INCAPACITY TO LEARN READILY

Introductory statement. — J. P. was fourteen years old when the study
of his case began in October, 1921. He was normal physically and
attended school regularly. According to the report of his teachers,
he had a limited background of experience ; ' he was slow in his mental
reactions, and he ranked low in most of his school subjects.

DIFFICULTIES IN INTERPRETATION

75

Preliminary diagnosis. — A study of his case was made through the
use of five standardized tests. The names of the tests, J. P.'s scores,
and the standard eighth-grade scores are included in Table XIII.

The scores indicate that J. P. was decidedly below the average in
general intelligence, in oral-reading accomplishment, and in comprehen-
sion. His rate of silent reading in the Courtis test was about normal.
A study of his oral-reading record showed that he read simple passages
rapidly and made few errors. Those which he made were of the following
types: (a) repetitions to correct mispronunciations; {h) substitutions of
such words as the for their and was for were^ which did not change the
meaning materially; (c) omissions of final syllables in such words as
greater and remarkably; and {d) occasional additions to words as neatly

TABLE XIII

Tests

Standard

Eighth-Grade

Scores

The Illinois Intelligence Test

The Gray Oral Reading Test

The Burgess Silent Reading Test .
The Courtis Silent Reading Test:

Rate

Comprehension

The Monroe Silent Reading Test :

Comprehension

* Standard score for the sixth grade.

for neat and hoys for boy. In the more difficult passages, his major
difi&culty was the partial mispronunciation of polysyllabic words, such
as antique, habitually, and ingratiatingly. He also misplaced the accent
in such words as relatively, accurate, and azure.

A close study of his test papers in silent reading revealed the following
facts: (a) he completed five exercises correctly in the Burgess test,
which is the standard number for a third-grade pupil; (b) he scored
slightly below the sfixth-grade standard in both rate and comprehension
in the Courtis test; (c) his comprehension score in the Monroe test
was far below the standard for the sixth grade; and {d) he scored higher
in exercises in which the answers were found in the passages than in
exercises which were problematic in nature or which required independent
thinking. Inasmuch as his oral-reading record showed that he encoun-
tered little difficulty ui the recognition of simple passages, it was clear
that his failures in the interpretation of simple passages were not due

76 REMEDIAL CASES IN READING

primarily to difficulties in the mechanics of reading. Therefore, the tenta-
tive conclusion was drawn that he had not formed the habit of directing
his attention to the content of what he read or of thinking independently
about it. In order to determine the validity of this conclusion, additional
information was secured through a more detailed study of his reading
habits.

Detailed diagnosis. — In the Jones Vocabulary Test he made a score
of 98 on the sight list and a score of 100 on the phonetic list, indicating
that he had very little difficulty in the recognition of simple isolated
words. He made only three slight errors in the visual memory test,
which indicated that difficulties in reading could not be attributed to
poor visual memory.

PLATE IV

I 2 3 4- 5 &

not dark. The aright mAon shone in at the

3 4 5 *

Peter coiild see Everything in the

vi^inpov^.

a I 3 4 5 6 T

jroom. All at onde he heard a npise. Peter

12 5 30 14 17 U t

Photographic records of his eye-movements in both oral and silent
reading were secured. A reproduction of a portion of the silent-reading
record appears in Plate IV.

The record reveals regular habits of eye-movements, only one
regressive movement appearing in the three lines which were reproduced.
In order to compare his record with seventh-grade' standards the
average number of fixations and regressive movements per line and the
average duration of fixations were calculated and are included in
Table XIV.

The entries in the table show that he made more fixations per line
and made longer fixations in both oral and silent reading than an average

' No eighth-grade standards were available.

DIFFICULTIES IN INTERPRETATION

77

seventh-grade pupil. On the other hand, he made fewer regressive
movements. The one noticeable weakness which was revealed by this
study was the somewhat long duration of fixations, which indicated the
need for exercises to increase his rate of recognition.

Informal tests in oral reading showed that he read monotonously
and often ignored periods, which indicated that he was giving little or
no attention to the content. He mispronounced only a few words in
simple passages, which indicated a fair mastery of the recognition of
short words. His difficulties in the pronunciation of polysyllabic
words, however, indicated a need for training in syllabication and accent.
Informal tests in comprehension showed that he could reproduce simple
selections accurately and in great detail but that he was less successful
in answering thought-provoking questions concerning the content.
Questioning revealed the fact that he had not formed the habit of think-

TABLE XIV

Oral Reading

Silent Reading

Items

J. P.'s Record

Seventh-
Grade
Standards

J. P.'s Record

Seventh-
Grade
Standards

Average number of fixations per line

Average duration of fixations

Average number of regressive move-
ments per line

9.6
9-4

1.6

8.7

7

2

8
10.8

1.2

6.8
6

1-5

ing independently about what he read. In more difficult selections he
was handicapped by his narrow background of experience and limited
meaning vocabulary. In such selections he got only a few facts or
missed the point of the story altogether. His responses to questions
based on factual material were better than to questions which required
the use of his imagination or the appreciation of subtle meanings.

Summary of diagnosis. — The diagnosis showed that J. P.'s mental
age was three years below his chronological age, that he was distinctly
retarded in oral- read ing accomplishment and in the comprehension of
what he read, and that his rate of silent reading approximated the
standard for his grade. His difficulties in oral reading related primarily
to the pronunciation of polysyllabic words. His eye-movement records
in both oral and silent reading showed that his habits, were normal
with the exception that his fixations were somewhat longer than normal.
Although he encountered some difficulties in the mechanics of reading,

78 REMEDIAL CASES IN READING

the facts secured in the diagnosis showed clearly that his fundamental
difficulty in both oral and silent reading was failure to interpret passages
which were problematic in character or which required independent
thinking. This was due to a narrow background of experience, a
limited meaning vocabulary, failure to direct his attention to the content,
ineffective habits of thinking while reading, and inherent incapacity to
learn readily.

Remedial instruction. — Remedial instruction was organized with
three major purposes in mind: (a) to secure his interest and co-operation
in the reading of many relatively simple stories for the purpose of
extending his experience and increasing his meaning vocabulary; (6)
to develop the habit of looking for meanings in all reading exercises
and of thinking independently about them ; and (c) to develop independ-
ence in the recognition of polysyllabic words. In order to accomplish
these purposes individual instruction was given for twenty-five minutes
each day. The period was used largely for reports on assigned work,
for discussions of outside reading, and for oral, and silent reading with
emphasis on interpretation. After the first three weeks a few minutes
each day were devoted to exercises to develop independence in the
recognition of polysyllabic words.

Extending his experience and increasing his meaning vocabulary
through quantitative reading of simple selections. — His responses to
questions based on the content of passages showed that many of the
common facts and experiences which were described were unfamiliar to
him; also, that he did not know the meaning of many words. In order
to meet his needs in these respects, a large amount of relatively simple
reading material, representing a variety of experiences, was assigned.
The stories were discussed at length, meanings of words were explained
and any additional information which would add interest to the reading
was given. Some outside reading was assigned each day and he was
asked to look for the meaning of unfamiliar words in the dictionary.
The content of selections was discussed in order to clear up any points
which were not clear. Suitable books were kept on the reading table
and his interest was aroused in them by telling him a part of a story or
by having him begin a book in class. When he became sufficiently
interested in a story to want to complete it he was permitted to take the
book home. This reading was for his own pleasure and he was not
requested to yeport on it unless he volunteered to do so.

Developing habits of accurate interpretation. — The fact that he read
monotonously, ignored periods, and failed to answer questions based on

DIFFICULTIES IN INTERPRETATION 79

the content of selections indicated that he did not habitually direct his
attention to the content. He was given simple passages at first and
was asked to read them orally in order to discover causes of failure.
Constructive suggestions were then given as they were needed. Specific
directions were given to center his attention on the important points.
After preparing a reading assignment, questions were asked to test his
mastery of the content and necessary explanations were given to make
the meaning of passages clear. Later he was asked to read short
selections silently and to reproduce what he read. In case of failure
to interpret satisfactorily, he was asked to re-read parts of the story.
At first, he was questioned concerning only the most important points;
later, concerning significant details. As he gained in ability to interpret
simple selections, more difficult ones were assigned.

Developing ability to interpret passages of a problematic type and to
think independently. — Although he was soon able to reproduce a story
accurately and to answer questions concerning the important points,
if the story element was strong, he frequently failed to follow directions
or to think independently about selections of a problematic type, even
if the passages were very simple. In this connection he was given
written directions, such as "Write a word which you think describes
the fox in this story." " How many turtles were on the log ? " "Draw
a log, make crosses on it to represent the turtles, and make a large cross
showing where Slow Little Turtle sat." "Write the names of the two
animals that were friends." "If you think the horse should have been
made king of the animals draw a circle around the word horse; if you do
not think so draw a cross over it."

Thought-provoking questions were assigned in connection with
the reading of a variety of selections, and every efifort was made to
stimulate independent thinking. For illustration, he was asked to
summarize all of the facts which led up to a certain act, to characterize
people, to determine the significance of people or incidents with reference
to a plot, and to give reasons for his opinions. Attention was also given
to figures of speech, subtle meanings, and important references of a
geographical, historical, or literary nature. He was encouraged to ask
questions when the meaning of a passage was not clear and he frequently
brought to the teacher questions or references based on his reading in
other subjects which he failed to understand. These were discussed and
explained.

Developing independence in recognition. — His most noticeable diffi-
culty in the mechanics of reading was his inability to pronounce polysyl-

8o

REMEDIAL CASES IN READING

labic words. He did not know how to divide words into syllables or
where to place the accent. He was also unfamiliar with rules governing
vowel sounds. When he failed to pronounce the word progressively,
it was divided into syllables and he was first given pro gress, then pro
gress ive, and finally pro gress ive ly. Other words beginning with pro
were listed; also words ending with ive and with ly. Words containing
other prefixes and suffixes were studied as difficulties arose and they
were recorded in a notebook. New words were added at frequent
intervals and the entire list was reviewed from time to time until he
became familiar with the words. He frequently misplaced the accent
in both short and long words. These were divided into syllables and
the correct pronunciations indicated by means of accent marks. A list
was made in his notebook of all such words and referred to frequently.

TABLE XV

Tests

October Scores

November Scores

Standard

Eighth-Grade

Scores

The Gray Oral Reading Test

33-75
14

188
93

9

45
50

191
98

22.32

48

The Burgess Silent Reading Test

The Courtis Silent Reading Test:

Rate

Comprehension

The Monroe Silent Reading Test:

Comprehension

50

191*
95*

26

* Standard score for the sixth grade.

He voluntarily made lists of words which he encountered in other
subjects. He was given help on these at first. Later he was encouraged
to use the dictionary. Diacritical marks were explained and certain
vowel digraphs which caused difficulty, such as or, ar, ir, ur, aw, ew, and
ow, were studied. He was also given rules to assist him in determining
whether vowels are long or short.

Results. — At the end of six weeks he was given the tests again. The
scores which he made in October, his November scores, and the standard
scores for his grade are included in Table XV.

The scores indicate that he had made considerable progress in
silent reading. He had reached the standard for his grade in rate of
reading. His comprehension score in the Courtis test was slightly
above the standard and in the Monroe test somewhat below. It is
significant that the instruction which he had received in interpreting
what he read and in pronouncing polysyllabic words had brought him
practically up to the standard in oral reading.

DIFFICULTIES IN INTERPRETATION 8 1

CASE H

AN ELEVEN-YEAR OLD GIRL (UNCLASSIFIED) WHO WAS VERY POOR IN INTER-
PRETATION BECAUSE OF SLOW MENTAL AND PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT,
A NARROW RANGE OF EXPERIENCE, AND IMMATURE LANGUAGE HABITS

Introductory statement. — M. G. was eleven years old in October,
1921. She spoke indistinctly and in incomplete sentences. She was
very timid and nervous and gave evidence of poor muscular control.
A study of her early history revealed the fact that she did not attempt
to walk until she was three years old, and that she was carried or had
ridden in her cart most of the time until she was eight years old. She
was very slow in learning to talk. The few words which she used at
first were almost inarticulate. Following the removal of badly infected
tonsils at the age of eight there was marked improvement in her physical
condition. Because of the continued soreness of her throat after the
operation, she spoke but very little for several months. Furthermore,
she formed the habit of speaking indistinctly in order to avoid pain.
When the study of her case began she still spoke as few words as possible,
and with great effort. The constant care that had been necessary
made her very dependent, and she had never learned to do things for
herself. On entering school at the age of eight she was assigned to a
room for retarded children. This plan was not successful and a private
tutor was secured, under whose direction her speech improved somewhat
and she learned to read mechanically. She had never associated with
children, did not know how to play, and had few interests. Her range
of information was limited and her general development was greatly
retarded.

Preliminary diagnosis. — ^A preliminary study was made of the case
through the use of standardized tests. The names of the tests which
were used, M. G.'s scores, and standard scores for several grades are
included in Table XVI.

The results of the tests indicated that M. G.'s mental age was five
years below her chronological age. In oral reading she scored above
the standard for the first grade, but below that of the second grade.
In the silent-reading tests she was unable to interpret what she read.

An examination of her record sheet in oral reading showed that she
read slowly and made numerous errors. She repeated frequently,
substituted one word for another, and omitted and inserted words or
parts of words. Her articulation was so inaccurate that it was scarcely
possible to distinguish many of the words. The predominance of omis-
sions among her errors was consistent with her inability to speak in com-

82

REMEDIAL CASES IN READING

plete sentences. The errors which she made indicated clearly that she
gave little or no attention to the content of what she read. On the other
hand, her ability to recognize words was surprising and difficult to ex-
plain. In the Burgess Silent Reading Test she read four exercises in
the required time but did not understand them. In the Haggerty Read-
ing Examination, Sigma I, it was very evident that she was unfamiliar
with experiences common to first-grade children. For example, she
did not know the meaning of the words cross and circle and was unable
to follow the directions. When directed to put an eye on the bird, she
put an eye on both the fish and the bird, thus indicating that she did
not discriminate carefully in her reading. In the Monroe and Courtis
tests, she was unable to read the paragraphs and to answer the questions

concerning them.

TABLE XVI

Tests

The Stanford Revision of the Binet-Simon Tests
The Gray Oral Reading Test

The Burgess Silent Reading Test

The Courtis Silent Reading Test:

Rate

Comprehension

The Haggerty Reading Examination, Sigma I. .
The Monroe Silent Reading Test :

Comprehension

M.G.'s Scores

53 • 7-
43-75
29

17-5
o

Grade I
Grade II
Grade III
Grade III

Grade II
Grade II
Grade I

Grade III

Standard Scores

100
31
43
46
50

59

4

6.8

In the intelligence tests she was unable to describe pictures and could
not incorporate three words into a sentence, reproduce simple figures
in drawing, or define such simple words as yellow and tiger. Most of the
words in the vocabulary test were not familiar to her. Many of the things
which she was asked to do seemed quite new to her, indicating a lack
of experience common to most children. She did not possess sufficient
language ability to express herself even in familiar situations. It was
apparent from her numerous failures that she was either incapable of
doing effective thinking or that she had been given little opportunity
to exercise her own judgment and to think independently. On the other
hand, she executed simple directions quickly and accurately in a number
of cases. When given definite things to do which were within her range
of experience, she responded readily.

The preliminary diagnosis suggested three tentative conclusions in
regard to her reading accomplishments: (a) she made frequent errors

DIFFICULTIES IN INTERPRETATION 83

in reading simple sentences due primarily to inefifective language habits;
(b) she encountered numerous difficulties in reading passages containing
unfamiliar words due to inadequate habits of recognition; and (c) she
failed almost completely in the interpretation of what she read, due to
lack of experience and poor habits of thinking. Furthermore, it seemed
probable that her weakness in interpretation accentuated her difficulties
in the mechanics of reading.

Detailed diagnosis. — Three tests were given for the purpose of study-
ing in detail her difficulties in the mechanics of reading. In the Jones
Vocabulary Test she made a score of 83.9 on the phonetic list, and a
score of 90.6 on the sight list. These scores indicated that she recognized
simple isolated words fairly well for a first-grade pupil, but very poorly
for an eleven-year-old child. In the visual memory test, she made a
score of 50. Her chief difficulty consisted in failure to scrutinize the
forms and numbers carefully. In some cases she seemed confused, and
in order to conceal her weakness she did not take sufficient time to note
details. In the short-exposure tests, she encountered . considerable
difficulty in the recognition of individual letters and of two-letter words,
but made few errors in the recognition of longer words and short phrases.
She recognized most of the three-word phrases at the first exposure.
These results were surprising inasmuch as she seemed to recognize
individual words while reading rather than a group of words at each
fixation. The results indicated, however, that the possibilities were
very good for developing a wide span of recognition in reading.

Informal tests of oral reading showed considerable ability in the
recognition of simple words. On the other hand, she frequently omitted
parts of words or miscalled words when she saw them in context. She
could correct such errors without help when her attention was called
to them. She pronounced final consonants clearly only when she made
conscious effort to do so. Her inability to speak distinctly and in com-
plete sentences accounted for this difficulty, as well as for many of her
errors in oral reading.

Informal tests of comprehension were given in both oral and silent
reading. She encountered more difficulty in reproducing or answering
questions about passages which she read silently than about those
which she read orally. In either case her reproductions were inadequate
and her sentences incomplete and unrelated. When asked questions
which required independent thinking she failed completely. After a
study period in which passages were assigned for silent reading, she often
admitted that she had not read them. On inquiry it was found that

84 REMEDIAL CASES IN READING

she had always read orally and that she had never learned to read
silently. The audible pronunciation of the words seemed to be pre-
requisite in her case to an understanding of what was read. Another
characteristic which was noticeable in all of her reading was her inability
to direct her attention to the page long enough to complete a paragraph.
She often stopped in the middle of a sentence to look at the pictures or
to look around the room. Furthermore, she frequently failed to stop at
the end of a sentence, thus indicating that she gave little or no attention
to the content of what she read and that she merely pronounced words.

Summary oj diagnosis. — The diagnosis revealed the fact that M. G.
was greatly retarded in both her mental and physical development,
that her language habits were distinctly immature and inadequate,
that she had never associated with children of her own age and not
had the experiences which were common to them, and that she depended
largelv on others to supply her needs. In regard to her accomplishments
in reading, three ver\^ significant sets of facts were discovered.

1. In oral reading she was superior to an average first-grade pupil
but poorer than an average second-grade pupil. Her most frequent
errors were omissions of words or parts of words and inaccurate articula-
tion. These were accounted for primarily by her immature language
habits. As a result of previous instruction, she was able to recognize
accurately words whose meanings she did not know.

2. Her rate of silent reading was approximately equal to the standard
rate for the second grade. This was explained by the fact that she
frequently did not read although she appeared to be doing so. Further-
more, her relatively wide span of recognition was more or less a potential
possibility than an actual achievement in silent reading. Finally, her
accomplishment in rate was complicated by the fact that she habitually
pronounced words aloud in reading.

3. Her weakness in interpretation was the most noticeable and
significant characteristic of her reading. It was due to a series of closely
related causes, namely, undeveloped language habits, a limited meaning
vocabular\% a narrow range of experience, failure to direct her attention
to the content of what she read, and distinctly retarded mental develop-
ment which resulted in inability to think independently.

Remedial instruction. — The first steps in the program of remedial
instruction aimed (a) to enlarge her background of experience, {h) to
develop more effective language habits, and (c) to stimulate habits of
intelligent interpretation and effective thinking. In organizing remedial

DIFFICULTIES IN INTERPRETATION 85

instruction it was planned to give only incidental attention to the
mechanics of reading until marked progress had been made along other
lines. Forty-five minutes were given each day to individual instruction
and included three types of training. A part of each period was spent
in visiting various places of interest in an elementary-school building
for the purpose of securing new and interesting experiences. A short
time was then devoted to conversation relating to these experiences
and to other topics of interest. The last part of the period was devoted
to instruction in reading. The entire period was informal and every
effort was made to gain her confidence.

Enlarging her background of experience. — No instruction was
attempted during the first few days. The time was spent in visiting
the playground, gymnasium, classrooms, and other places of interest
in the building. This gave her an opportunity to get acquainted with
her teacher and her surroundings. She observed children at work and
at play, and came in contact with toys, equipment, books, and materials
of all kinds. She was encouraged to talk freely and to ask questions
about the things which interested her. At first she was timid and content
merely to observe, but later she voluntarily sought opportunities to
enter into the activities and to become a part of a group. Often she
was invited to play games or to read with a class, and was supplied
with material when the pupils were making things. She began to
connect the things which she saw with her own experiences, and she
saw new possibilities in materials. She played in the doll house and
toy store when the children were not using them, watched the progress
of various projects, asked how to make many things, and became inter-
ested in the pets which were in the classrooms and watched them
from day to day. She brought her lunch occasionally in order that she
might have the experience of being with the children at noon on the
playground. This was her first real contact with other children and
most of the experiences were new to her. New interests were created
and she began to imitate other children. She soon asked for the things
which she needed to carry out her plans. She decided for herself what
she wished to do, and gradually began to exercise her own judgment
in regard to various matters.

Developing effective language habits. — At first she volunteered very
few statements about her visits and the things which she saw. Her
answers to questions were usually in monosyllables. Occasionally she
would say "Nice game" or would make an incomplete statement about

86 REMEDL\L CASES IN READING

something which interested her. One day the reading table in the first-
grade room attracted her attention. She found a book containing
pictures and stories of farm animals. She began to talk rapidly about
the pictures, trying to explain that she had visited a farm and had had
a good time. Questions were asked and words supplied to assist her
in telling what she wished to say. After discussing the pictures, she
was asked to select stories to read. The stories were simple and because
of her interest she had little difficulty in reading them. This was the
first evidence of a desire to read.

She became interested in building a farm in the sand pan. She
watched it from day to day, and frequently asked questions or volun-
teered some information of her own. A visit to the playground or class-
room usually resulted in an outburst of conversation. She wanted to
tell what she saw or to ask questions. When she did not speak in com-
plete sentences, they were supplied but no comments were made. In a
short time she unconsciously repeated these sentences. She was often
asked to tell what she saw when she went downtown, and an interest
was shown in her activities at home. She began to report voluntarily
on what she had seen or done. She also began to repeat at home some
of her experiences at school, to retell stories, and to take part in the
conversation. She often surprised the family by offering an opinion or
by volunteering some information.

Developing habits of intelligent interpretation. — Although numerous
devices were employed in establishing habits of thoughtful reading,
only three of the more significant methods will be described here on
account of the limitations of space.

I. She was assigned some reading to prepare at home each day.
Part of a story was told to her or her curiosity was aroused by questions
in order to stimulate a desire to read. The selections were short and
very simple at first. She was asked frequently to reproduce a story
which she had read at home. This furnished a motive for her reading
and because she knew she might be asked to tell the story, she directed
her attention to the content. Her first reproductions were very frag-
mentary and showed that she comprehended very little of what she read.
She was often able to give only two or three incomplete sentences as
" Dog ran away. Boy cry." When her reproductions were very unsatis-
factory, she was asked to re-read the story. In these cases, questions
or suggestions prefaced each unit to enable her to carry forward the
thought. The meanings of words were explained and passages were
discussed. After this method of procedure had been followed for

DIFFICULTIES IN INTERPRETATION 87

several weeks she was able to reproduce the important parts of a story
satisfactorily. Occasional questions were necessary to enable her to
tell the incidents in correct sequence.

She was often asked to read one of the prepared stories aloud and
special attention was given to the improvement of her oral-reading
habits. The fact that the story was familiar enabled her to read more
fluently and accurately. It also lessened her tendency to stop in the
middle of sentences and paragraphs to look at pictures or at the next
page. After acquiring the habit of reading without distraction she
was able to concentrate more effectively when reading unfamiliar stories.
She read very monotonously at first or emphasized unimportant words.
Such questions as "What kind of fox was he ?" helped her to emphasize
the correct words and to read with better expression.

2. After three weeks of instruction of the types which have been
described she was assigned some sight reading each day. Her interest
was aroused and her attention directed to the content by discussing
pictures with her, by telling a part of the story to her, by asking her to
read to find out what happened next, or by such a suggestion as "The
boy in this story wanted a dog. Read the story to find out how he
got it." After reading the selection she was encouraged to discuss it
and to express her own opinion about it, or questions were asked to test
her ability to interpret the thought. For example, such directions and
questions as the following were given: "Name all of the animals that
the donkey met and tell how each one helped him. How was this story
different from the other story about these same animals which you read ?
Which story did you like better ? Why ? "

3. When silent reading was introduced during the seventh week
she was asked to read only a short paragraph or unit containing one
clearly defined point. Short units were cut from books and mounted on
cardboard for the first reading. Her attention was directed to the
thought of the passage by giving her definite things to find out. At
first an audible pronunciation of words was necessary to an understanding
of what was read. As her ability to get the thought increased, the
audible pronunciation of words decreased. The length and difficulty
of the passages which were used increased gradually. In the case of the
longer selections several questions which directed her attention to the
important points of a story were written on the board. She was asked
to answer these questions after reading a selection. At first it was
often necessary to re-read passages aloud before she could answer all
of the questions.

88

REMEDIAL CASES IN READING

The following device is given to illustrate the methods used to test
her ability to read silently and to encourage her to think independently.
After she had read a selection, directions were written on the board,
such as "Draw a line under the name of the animal in this story which
you liked best." "Tell why you liked that animal best." "Write the
name of the girl who had the party."

As soon as she was able to interpret what she read silently, the
assignments for home work were changed from oral to silent reading.
Supplementing the assigned work in silent reading, books were given to

TABLE XVII

Tests

October Scores

December Scores

Standard Scores

The Stanford Revision of the

Binet-Simon Tests

53-7

60.8

100

The Gray Oral Reading Test

43-75 Grade I

66.25

31

29 Grade II

46.25

43

17.5 Grade III

41.25

46

The Burgess Silent Reading

Test

0

38 Grade III

5°

The Courtis Silent Reading

Test:

Rate

82

91.6

84
113

Grade II
Grade III

Comprehension

0

66.6

59

78

Grade II
Grade III

The Haggerty Reading Ex-

amination, Sigma I:

Test I

0

14

12
16

Grade II
Grade III

Test II

0

13

8
14

Grade II

Grade III

The Monroe Silent Reading

Test:

Comprehension

0

3

6.8

Grade III

her to read for her own enjoyment. These stories were often begun in
class to arouse her interest and she would then take them home to finish.
She was not required to discuss their content but she was given every
opportunity to do so. Before the end of nine weeks of instruction
she was genuinely interested in reading and had voluntarily read several
books and many short stories for her own entertainment in addition to
the books which were assigned and read during class periods.

Results. — After nine weeks of instruction the standardized tests
were given again. Her scores before training, after training, and the
standard scores are included in Table XVII.

DIFFICULTIES IN INTERPRETATION 89

The intelligence tests were given again at the close of the training
period to determine what effect, if any, extending her experience,
stimulating her interests, developing her language habits, and increasing
her ability to read fluently and intelligently had had upon her general
intelligence as measured by the Stanford Revision of the Binet-Simon
Tests. The score indicated that she ranked approximately a year
higher than she did before the training began.

The reading tests showed that she had gained more than a year in
oral-reading accomplishment and between two and three years in ability
to interpret what she read. Her rate of silent reading had also increased.
It was evident from these facts that the remedial instruction had been
distinctly successful in increasing her comprehension of what was read.
It was also evident that, in a short time, she would have made sufficient
progress in interpretation to justify specific attention to such matters
as the rate of reading and the recognition of difficult words.

SUMMARY or CAUSES OF FAILURE

The four cases which have been described in this chapter present an
interesting list of causes of difficulty or failure in interpretation. They
are (a) lack of training in intelligent interpretation, (b) failure to direct
attention to the content while reading, (c) inadequate or ineffective
habits of thinking, (d) a narrow range of experience concerning the
things referred to in selections, (e) inadequate reading experience in
certain types of selections, such as factual and problematic, (/) immature
language habits which resulted in failure to grasp the meaning of many
commonly used forms of expression, and (g) an overcultivated imagina-
tion which resulted in reading into passages things which were not there.
Other causes of failure in interpretation which are emphasized in other
chapters of this monograph are (a) difficulties in the mechanics of reading,
(b) lack of interest in reading, (c) inadequate learning capacity, (d)
careless habits of reading, (e) inattention, (/) lack of feeling of responsi-
bility for the content, and (^) ineffective application. It is significant
that most of the causes of inadequate interpretation can be removed if
effective methods of instruction are employed.

CONCLUSION CONCERNING REMEDIAL INSTRUCTION

An analysis of the reports of individual cases in this chapter shows
clearly that there are certain suggestions which may be followed to
advantage in organizing remedial instruction for any pupil who encounters
difficulties in interpretation, (i) The interest of the pupil must be

go REMEDIAL CASES IN READING

aroused and his co-operation secured. (2) Selections must be used
which are directly related to the interests of the pupil. (3) A factual
background must be developed in order to secure accurate interpreta-
tions. (4) Specific problems must be assigned during the early part of
the training period in order to direct the pupil's attention to significant
points. (5) The problems which are assigned at first should be relatively
simple and should increase in difl&culty as rapidly as the pupil's power of
interpretation develops. (6) Different types of problems must be
assigned from time to time in order to insure growth in all important
phases of interpretation. (7) Responsibility for independent inter-
pretations must eventually be imposed on the child. This means that
he must re-read or study passages several times, if necessary, in order
to secure adequate interpretations. (8) The co-operation of the teachers
of content subjects must be secured in order to insure the establishment
of good habits of interpretation in all reading activities.

CHAPTER VI

PUPILS WHO ENCOUNTERED DIFFICULTIES PRIMARILY IN THE
MECHANICS OF READING

The reports which are included in this chapter describe the cases
of six pupils who encountered serious difficulties in the mechanics of
reading. Although some of these pupils were below the standards for
their grades in the interpretation of what they read, no case is reported
in which difficulties in the mechanics of reading were not far more serious
than those in interpretation. On the other hand, considerable emphasis
was given to interpretation in the remedial instruction for two reasons,
(i) Very little, if any, instruction in reading should be given in which
attention is not directed primarily to the content. Legitimate exceptions
are drill exercises to establish specific habits, such as a wide span of
recognition or an accurate return sweep from the end of one line to the
beginning of the next. (2) Some pupils whose fundamental difficulties
were in the mechanics of reading also interpreted what they read inade-
quately. In such cases, remedial instruction included specific exercises
to improve their ability to interpret.

It is significant that pupils from the third to the seventh grade
inclusive are reported as notably weak in the rudimentary phases of read-
ing. It indicates failure on the part of teachers in the lower and middle
grades to establish fundamental habits and associations effectively.
Although a thorough mastery of the mechanics of reading is far less
significant than ability to interpret accurately, recent investigations
show clearly that pupils who have not learned to read fluently and
accurately are seriously handicapped in interpreting the printed page.
It is of very great importance therefore that teachers in the lower grades
test pupils frequently, keep accurate records of their progress, and
provide individual instruction frequently in order to insure a thorough
mastery of the mechanics of reading before a pupil is promoted to the
middle grades. In securing these results, however, attention should
be given primarily to the problem of estabHshing habits of thoughtful
reading.

A significant fact concerning all of the cases reported in this chapter
is that they scored relatively low in the Gray Oral Reading Test.
Furthermore, they read aloud inaccurately and failed to group words

91

92 REMEDL\L CASES IN READING

effectively in thought units. A detailed analysis of their habits of reading
showed that in most cases they made a large number of fixations per
line, that regressive movements were frequent, that they had a narrow
span of recognition, and that they encountered unusual difificulties in the
recognition of words. Furthermore, some of the pupils who were able
to recognize simple words when they were presented individually failed
to recognize them accurately in sentences. Although most pupils who
encounter difficulties in recognition read very slowly, at least two of the
pupils whose cases are reported made numerous errors because they
read aloud too rapidly and failed to note the details of words with
sufficient care. In addition to the significant difficulties which were
encountered by all of these pupils, each presented distinguishing charac-
teristics which can be described best in the detailed reports which follow.

CASE I

A THIRD-GRADE GIRL WHO WAS VERY INACCURATE IN RECOGNITION BECAUSE OF

DIFFICULTIES IN LEARNING TO READ WITH BIFOCAL VISION AFTER

HAVING LEARNED TO READ WITH ONE EYE

Introductory statement. — In October, 192 1, S. L. was ten years and
one month old. Her mother had formerly been a teacher of the primary
grades and had supervised her school progress carefully. Her parents
were in comfortable circumstances and home conditions were favorable
to rapid development. She had entered the kindergarten at the age
of four. Her progress had been normal to the middle of the third grade,
at which time she was able to read quite fluently. On account of ill
health she remained out of school for a year and a half. She entered
the University Elementary School in the autumn of 192 1 and it was
soon discovered that she encountered numerous difficulties in reading.

Preliminary diagnosis. — Table XVIII contains the names of the tests
which were used in the preliminary diagnosis of the case, the scores
which S. L. made, and the standard third-grade scores.

The results of the tests indicate that S. L. was a girl of normal
intelligence, that she was retarded approximately a year in oral-reading
accomplishment, that her rate of silent reading was above the average
for a third-grade pupil, and that she was distinctly inferior in compre-
hension. The oral-reading records showed numerous repetitions,
partial mispronunciations, such as never for ever and short for sort, and
frequent omissions and insertions of short words. On the other hand,
the number of totally mispronounced words was very small. It was
observed that during the course of both the oral- and the silent-reading
tests, her eyes tired frequently and failed to co-ordinate. If she dis-

DIFFICULTIES IN MECHANICS OF READING

93

continued reading for a moment or two her eyes would focus properly
and she was able to proceed with her reading. The unusual number
and character of her errors, as well as the difficulties which she had with
her eyes led to the tentative conclusion that her fundamental difficulty
was probably in recognition rather than in interpretation. This con-
clusion was further supported by results secured through the use of

TABLE XVIII

Tests

Standard

Third-Grade

Scores

The Stanford Revision of the Binet-Simon Tests

The National Intelligence Tests

The Gray Oral Reading Test

The Burgess Silent Reading Test

The Courtis Silent Reading Test, No. 2 :

Rate

Comprehension

The Monroe Silent Reading Test :

Comprehension

100

100

46

SO

113

78

6.8

passages in the Courtis Silent Reading Test, No. 2. In these tests she
interpreted very well what was read to her but failed to interpret satis-
factorily what she read orally or silently. These results indicated that
the demands of recognition interfered seriously with elifective inter-
pretation.

Detailed diagnosis. — Additional steps were taken to determine more
fully the nature of her difficulties in recognition. The Jones Vocabulary
Test was given to measure her mastery of first-grade words. She made
a score of 93.7 on the sight list and a score of 80.5 on the phonetic list.
Several of the errors which were made in each test were partial mis-
pronunciations, such as run for ran. They indicated failure on her part
to recognize the details of words accurately. Many of the errors on
the phonetic list were due to the fact that her eyes were tired and were
not co-ordinating properly.

In order to determine whether or not her partial mispronunciations
were due to lack of phonetic ability, a series of simple tests similar to
Word Element Test A were given which were based on words that she
had mispronounced. The results showed clearly that she was quite
familiar with the sounds of initial consonants and family endings, and
that she could apply them in the independent recognition of unfamiliar
words. A visual memory test was given to determine evidences, if
there were any, of poor visual memory. Inasmuch as she made only

94 REMEDIAL CASES IN READING

one slight error in the test it was concluded that failures in recognition
were not due to defective visual memory-
Attempts to photograph her eye-movements were unsuccessful
because of the colored lenses which she was required to wear. Tt was
possible, however, to give the short-exposure tests to determine facts
concerning her span of recognition. The first time the isolated letters
were exposed, forty-three errors were made. On the following day she
recognized them with only six errors and on a third day with twenty
errors. As far as could be determined these differences were due to the
condition of her eyes on the days the tests were given. In general, she
made frequent errors in the recognition of isolated words and short
phrases. Questioning revealed the fact that the content helped her in
the recognition of phrases.

Although the diagnosis showed that she encountered serious diffi-
culties in both recognition and interpretation the specific nature of her
difficulty was not satisfactorily explained until her case had been
thoroughly discussed with her mother. At the time S. L. withdrew
from school in the third grade it was discovered by an oculist that she
had been using her left eye to such an extent that the muscles of
her right eye had deteriorated considerably. According to his judgment
she had been seriously affiicted with astigmatism in the right eye since
her birth. When glasses were secured which restored the use of her right
eye, she had to adjust herself to bifocal vision. This caused great
difficulty at first, resulting in considerable uncertainty in walking.
Gradually she gained in ability to see things clearly. When she tried
to read she encountered visual difficulties similar to those which she had
experienced in walking. Inasmuch as she enjoyed interesting stories,
she insisted on reading. On account of her visual difficulties she fre-
quently found it necessary to guess the pronunciation of words and the
meaning of passages with the result that careless inaccurate habits of
reading had developed.

Summary of diagnosis.- — The diagnosis showed that S. L. was a girl
of normal intelligence who ranked below the average for her grade in
most phases of reading. A careful analysis of her difficulties revealed
the fact that her fundamental weakness was in recognition rather than
interpretation. In this connection the following specific difiiculties
were noted: (a) inaccurate recognition of the details of words; {b)
inaccurate recognition of words in thought groups; and (c) a narrow
span of recognition. As far as could be determined these deficiencies
were due to difficulties encountered in adjusting herseK to bifocal vision.

DIFFICULTIES IN MECHANICS OF READING 95

Remedial instruction. — It is evident from the facts presented in the
diagnosis that the fundamental purpose of remedial instruction was to
reorganize her reading habits and to substitute accurate habits of
recognition for the inaccurate ones which had developed. In this con-
nection, four specific aims were adopted about which the remedial
instruction was organized. They were (a) to develop accuracy in the
recognition of words, (b) to increase the span of recognition, (c) to develop
better habits of grouping in oral reading, and (d) to provide many
opportunities for reading simple interesting selections.

In order to accomplish these purposes one-half hour each day was
devoted to remedial instruction. In general the period was divided
into three divisions. Ten minutes were given to the flash-card exercises
to aid in developing more accurate habits of recognition and a wider
span of recognition. Ten minutes were used for sight reading of easy
material and the remainder of the period was devoted to reading more
difficult passages which had been previously assigned. In addition a
large amount of very simple supplementary reading was required.

Because she had developed rapid, inaccurate habits of reading and
because many of her recent experiences in reading had been limited to
street and store signs it was necessary, first of all, to refine her reading
habits from the broad sweeps which take in large units more or less
inaccurately to more dehberate analyses of smaller units. Accordingly
flash-card exercises were prepared making use first of short phrases, and
then gradually introducing longer phrases and groups of words composed
of natural thought units. These were used during the first part of the
training period to increase her span of accurate recognition.

During the time devoted to the reading of easy material at sight,
attention was frequently called to the words which formed natural
groups of units. A considerable amount of time was devoted to reading
typewritten stories in which the natural thought units were widely
separated so as to direct attention to them and to develop the habit of
effective grouping in reading. An effort was also made to develop
better habits of eye-movements such as passing rapidly from the end
of one line to the beginning of the next. A part of the daily training
period was given to silent reading after which S. L. was required to give
a brief reproduction of the main thread of the story. This was done to
determine if thoughtful habits of reading were being developed.

In the last part of the recitation period the time was used for more
intensive types of reading. In this connection, she was assigned definite
units of material for preparation. Generally she was given an opportu-

96

REMEDIAL CASES IN READING

nity to tell what she had read and, if necessary, questions were asked
to bring out all the important ideas of a selection. The teacher then
assigned new material which S. L. read for the purpose of reproducing
or of answering assigned questions.

Results. — The results of the remedial instruction are shown in
Table XIX, which compares her scores at the beginning and end of
the training period with the standard scores.

TABLE XIX

Tests

October
Scores

December
Scores

Standard

Third-Grade

Scores

The Gray Oral Reading Test

42.5
0

120

45

I

51-25
50

118
94

5

46

The Burgess Silent Reading Test

'sO

The Courtis Silent Reading Test, No. 2 :
Rate

IIX

Comprehension

78

The Monroe Silent Reading Test:

6.8

This table shows that she made marked progress in oral-reading
accomplishment and in interpretation during the training period, but
no progress in rate of reading. This is explained by the fact that she
had previously formed the habit of skipping along the lines, recognizing
only those words with which she was most familiar. The formation
of more thoughtful reading habits had resulted in retarding for a time,
rather than increasing her rate of reading.

TABLE XX

Tests

The Gray Oral Reading Test

The Burgess Silent Reading Test .
The Courtis Silent Reading Test:

Rate

Comprehension

The Monroe Silent Reading Test:

Comprehension

Specific training was discontinued in December, 192 1, on the assump-
tion that the reading which would be required in regular classroom
exercises would add to the progress which had been made by the time
the December tests were given. On March 6 and 7, 1922, check tests
were given to determine the validity of this assumption. The results
are included in Table XX.

DIFFICULTIES IN MECHANICS OF READING

97

The results show clearly that the improvement which had been
secured during the training period was retained and, in addition, that
marked progress had been made in every phase of reading during the two
months following the training period. The fact should be noted that a
very creditable increase in rate of silent reading had been made by the
time of the March tests.

CASE J

A SEVENTH-GRADE BOY WHO WAS RETARDED IN THE MECHANICS OF READING
BECAUSE OF CARELESS HABITS OF READING, DEFECTIVE VISION,
AND INADEQUATE ATTENTION TO THE CONTENT

Introductory statement. — G. R. was fourteen years old in October,
192 1. He was overgrown, awkward, nervous, and temperamental.
He used an unnecessary amount of energy on anything which interested
him, but he was otherwise lazy and indifferent. His school history
showed that he had been out of school the whole of one year and had
been absent frequently during other years on account of illness. He
had attended several public schools and a private school for one year,
but had never done satisfactory work. When the study of the case
began, no physical defects were reported. A second examination of
his eyes was advised later and it was discovered that he needed glasses.

Preliminary diagnosis. — A preliminary study of the case was made
through the use of standardized tests. The names of the tests, G. R.'s
scores, and the standard seventh-grade scores are included in Table XXI.

TABLE XXI

Tests

G. R.'s Scores

Standard

Seventh-Grade

Scores

The Illinois Intelligence Test

The Gray Oral Reading Test

The Burgess Silent Reading Test.
The Courtis Silent Reading Test:

Rate

Comprehension

The Monroe Silent Reading Test:

Comprehension

* Standard score for the sixth grade

go

22.;
44

193

31

100

47
50

191"
9S'

The scores indicate that G. R. was somewhat below the standard
in general intelligence and decidedly retarded in oral reading. He was
above the average for his grade in rate of silent reading but below the
average in ability to comprehend what he read in all but one test. A

gS REMEDIAL CASES IN READING

study of his oral-reading record showed that he read simple passages
rapidly but very inaccurately and totally mispronounced many polysyl-
labic words in more difficult passages. His major errors were (a)
repetitions, (b) omissions and insertions of short words, (c) substitutions,
such as dark for dull, which for such, and beaiitifid for pretty, and {d)
miscalling or omitting final syllables such as farmer for farming, busy
for business, and great for greater. In the silent-reading tests he had
little difficulty in answering simple questions, but was less successful
in exercises which required careful discrimination. Inasmuch as he made
numerous errors in reading very simple passages, the tentative conclusion
was drawn that his low scores in comprehension were due primarily to
inaccuracies in recognition and to careless habits of reading. In order
to secure additional information concerning the exact nature of his
difficulties a more detailed study of the case was made.

Detailed diagnosis. — In the Jones Vocabulary Test he made a score
of 91 on the sight hst and 92 on the phonetic list. This represents a large
number of errors for a seventh-grade pupil. In the sight list his errors
were omissions or additions of final letters or syllables, such as leaf for
leaves, puss for pussy, not for no, and trees for tree. In the phonetic list
there was usually an error of only one letter, such as rang for ring,
bride for pride, and sank for sink. He made only one error in the visual
memory test, which indicated clearly that inaccuracies in recognition
were not due to poor visual memory.

Informal tests in oral reading showed that he constantly mispro-
nounced parts of familiar words. He recognized them when they were
isolated but he omitted final syllables, substituted words which were
similar in form, or reversed the order of words in sentences. His most
noticeable error in simple passages was inaccuracy in the recognition
of words in groups. He also encountered difficulty in the recognition of
polysyllabic words. He had no idea of syllabication and attempted to
determine the pronunciation of words by spelling them. He had had
some phonetic training but was unable to use it intelligently as an aid
in recognition. His aim in reading seemed to be to proceed rapidly.
As a result he omitted and inserted words; he did not enunciate clearly,
and his pronunciation was very inaccurate. When asked to read slowly
and distinctly, he did noticeably better.

Informal tests of comprehension revealed the fact that when he
directed his attention to the content of what he read, he was able to
reproduce simple passages and to answer thought-provoking questions
satisfactorily. His failure in tests of a problematic nature was due

DIFFICULTIES IN MECHANICS OF READING 99

largely to inaccurate reading and to careless habits of thinking. In
difficult material his inability to recognize words interfered with
effective interpretation. He had greater difficulty when reading silently
than when reading orally. This was easily explained by the fact that
in reading orally he had to read more carefully, which resulted in greater
concentration of attention. These facts showed that he encountered
some difficulties in interpretation because he did not direct his attention
effectively to the content of what he read. Furthermore, it was clear
that the most significant cause of difficulty in both oral and silent
reading was his weakness in recognition.

Summary diagnosis.- — The diagnosis showed that G. R. was below
the average in general intelhgence, decidedly below the standard for his
grade in oral reading and somewhat retarded in interpretation. He
read aloud rapidly but did not enunciate clearly and failed notably in the
accurate recognition of simple words in sentences and of polysyllabic
words. The fact that he could read far better when he made conscious
effort to read accurately suggested that his errors in recognition were
due, in part, to careless habits of reading. Inasmuch as a thorough
examination of his eyes revealed the fact that he needed glasses, it was
concluded that defective vision had also contributed to his inaccuracies
in recognition. He read silently more rapidly than the average pupil
of his grade, but the inadequacy of his interpretation indicated that
he did not read with sufficient care. His poor record in the interpre-
tation (a) of simple passages was due primarily to inaccuracies in
recognition and to careless habits of reading, and {b) of more difficult
passages to weaknesses in recognition and to poor habits of thinking
while reading.

Remedial instruction. — The facts brought out in the diagnosis led
to the adoption of the following aims for remedial instruction: (a) to
overcome habits of careless reading by directing his attention to the
content of simple passages and by holding him responsible for accurate
interpretations; {b) to increase his accuracy in the recognition of simple
words in groups and to develop independence in the recognition of
polysyllabic words; and {c) to increase his ability to interpret difficult
passages and to develop habits of thinking independently about what
he reads. In order to accomplish these aims twenty-five minutes were
given each day to individual instruction.

Overcoming habits of careless reading: (a) By directing his attention
to the content. — Many of his errors in recognition were due to the fact
that he did not direct his attention to the content. He was frequently

lOO REMEDL\L CASES IN READING

asked, therefore, to read a selection silently before reading it aloud.
The content was then discussed to insure accurate interpretation.
This usually enabled him to read aloud more accurately. Sometimes
a part of a story was told to him in order that he might secure some idea
of its content before reading it. When sight reading was assigned,
he was given definite things to look for. Questions were asked or
suggestions were made from time to time as he read, in order to center
his attention on the essential points. When he had the content of
a selection in mind, he was able to anticipate the pronunciation of many
words which he might otherwise fail to recognize. Consequently the
number of errors decreased noticeably.

(b) By holding him responsible for careful work. — He read so rapidly
that he made many careless errors in recognition, failed to pronounce
words which he knew, and did not enunciate clearly. In order to
overcome these difficulties, two steps were taken: (i) selections were
chosen which would stimulate keen interest in reading; and (2) every
effort was made to enhst his co-operation in the elimination of errors.
He was asked to read more slowly, to read exactly what was on the page,
and to pronounce the words distinctly. When his attention was called
to errors and when he made a conscious effort to read accurately, he did
noticeably better. After a few weeks, he frequently passed judgment
on his reading. He voluntarily re-read passages which he had not read
well, and commented on his own improvement.

Overcoming difficulties in recognition: (a) By increasing accurate
recognition of groups of words. — The words which caused greatest diffi-
culty were written in sentences on the blackboard. Parts of the sentences
were then erased, leaving the phrases which contained the difficult
words. Quick-perception exercises were also used in increasing his
span of accurate recognition. He was frequently unable to distinguish
between such words as come and came and run and ran when he saw them
in sentences. These words were used repeatedly in sentences and
phrases. They were finally printed on cards and used in quick-
perception drills.

(b) By using phonetics as an aid in recognition. — He had great diffi-
culty in recognizing words beginning with certain consonant blends, such
as sw, spr, scr, gl, pi, and />, and also words containing such vowel digraphs
as ar, or, ew, and ou. The words which caused difficulty were written
on the board. In order to make correct sound associations with the
elements which caused difficulty, lists of words containing them were
studied. He was usually able to recognize words on which he had failed

" ' >TE TEACHBF*? COLLEGE
;/.NTA BARBARA. CAulrOKNIA

DIFFICULTIES IN MECHANICS OF READING loi

after pronouncing other words containing the same phonetic element.
He was also given several simple rules which enabled him to determine
the pronunciation of some words independently.

(c) By developing independence in the recognition of polysyllabic
words. — Because his method of analyzing words was inaccurate, he was
confused when he encountered long words. Such words were therefore
divided into syllables in order that he might see the familiar words,
or parts of words, of which they were composed. His attention was
then called to the prefixes and suffixes and a study was made of their
meanings. He was asked to supply other words containing them.
These were later used in drill exercises. The knowledge which he
gained through the training in phonetics enabled him to determine
the correct pronunciation of many syllables and words.

Increasing his ability to interpret difficult passages aitd developing
habits of independent thinking. — He had done very little reading volunta-
rily before the training began and it was quite evident that he was not
interested. He read stories in a cursory manner and was satisfied with
a general impression of them. He neglected all details and did little
independent thinking about what he read. In order to establish
habits of thoughtful reading, relatively simple selections were assigned
at first and accurate interpretations were required. Later more diffi-
cult passages were used. He was asked to read them silently and
his attention was directed to the content through the use of questions,
directions, and suggestions. He was frequently asked to reproduce a
story, emphasizing the important points, or he was asked to answer
thought-provoking questions. Lists of questions were prepared when
longer selections were assigned for outside reading. The answers to
these questions were discussed on the following day and additional
questions were asked to stimulate effective thinking.

He frequently brought to the special teacher selections which his
classmates were reading. These were usually read aloud; the stories
were discussed; the meanings of words were made clear; and references
were explained. He was asked to express his own opinion about the
stories, to tell why certain things happened, to characterize people,
and to anticipate how stories would end. A number of books which
were begun in class and completed outside were also discussed in the
same way.

Results.- — ^He was given the tests again at the end of eleven weeks.
The scores which he made in December, his October scores, and the
standard scores for his grade are included in Table XXH.

I02

REMEDIAL CASES IN READING

The scores indicate that he had made satisfactory progress in oral
reading and that he was above the standard for his grade in compre-
hension and in rate of silent reading. His December score in the Monroe
test, however, was lower than his October score, which was explained
by the fact that he had read carelessly while taking the Monroe test.

TABLE XXII

Tests

October Scores

December

Scores

Standard

Seventh-Grade

Scores

The Gray Oral Reading Test ....
The Burgess Silent Reading Test.
The Courtis Silent Reading Test :

Rate

Comprehension

The Monroe Silent Reading Test:

Comprehension

* Standard score for the sixth grade.

22.5

44
193

31

32.25
56

231
97-5

25-1

47
50

191
95^

He was later asked to re-read the passages, and he corrected his errors
without help. He admitted that he thought they were very easy and
that he had not read them carefully. It is evident that he was still
considerably retarded in oral reading. Just a week before the end of
the period he began to wear glasses and it is believed that his glasses will
aid greatly in overcoming his difficulties in recognition.

CASE K

A SIXTH-GRADE BOY WHO WAS RETARDED PRIMARILY IN THE MECHANICS OF

READING BECAUSE OF EXTREME TIMIDITY AND LACK OF

CONFIDENCE

Introductory statement. — In October, 192 1, W. M. was thirteen
years old. He had no physical defects, except nervousness, which
were likely to interfere with his progress in reading. He had attended
a rural school for several years and subsequently several public schools
in Chicago. His background of experience was limited; he lacked
confidence in his own ability; and he was extremely timid. Although
he was interested in all school activities, and was conscientious and
eager to succeed, his record in most of his school subjects was barely
satisfactory. The two exceptions were drawing and the manual arts.

Preliminary diagnosis. — A preliminary study of the case was made
through the use of standardized tests. The names of the tests, W. M.'s
scores, and the standard sixth-grade scores are included in Table
XXIII.

DIFFICULTIES IN MECHANICS OF READING

103

The scores indicate that W. M. was decidedly below the average in
general intelligence and in oral-reading accomplishment. He was also
below the standard for his grade in rate of silent reading and in ability
to interpret what he read in all tests except the Monroe test.

An examination of his record sheet in oral reading showed that he
failed to read the simplest passages accurately. His major errors were
(a) repetitions, (b) insertions and omissions of short words or parts of
words, (c) minor errors in words, such as glowed for glow, bird for birds,
and until for till, (d) substitutions of such words as pretty for beautiful,
and hills for mountains, which did not change the meaning of the passage,
and (e) substitutions of words and phrases, such as appear to be interested
for appear to be industrious and every morning for from morning till night.
These substitutions did not always change the meaning of the particular

TABLE XXIII

Tests

W. M.'s Scores

Standard

Sixth-Grade

Scores

The Illinois Intelligence Test. . . .
The Gray Oral Reading Test. . . .
The Burgess Silent Reading Test
The Courtis Silent Reading Test:

Rate

Comprehension

The Monroe Silent Reading Test

Comprehension

82

21.5

32

153
71

19

100
49
50

igr
95

18. s

sentence in which they occurred, but were frequently inconsistent with
the meaning of the entire passage and showed that he was not directing
his attention to the content. In the more difl&cult passages he was
unable to pronounce many polysyllabic words accurately.

A study of his test sheets in silent reading showed that he had
difficulty in following directions and in interpreting passages which were
problematic in nature and which required careful discrimination in
reading or independent thinking. On the other hand, he could answer
satisfactorily questions concerning the main points of simple passages.

The preliminary diagnosis showed that he was a very inaccurate
oral reader, that he had not established effective habits in the mechanics
of reading and that he was weak in interpretation. His difficulties in
the mechanics of reading appeared to be more prominent at this stage
of the diagnosis than his difficulties in interpretation. A more detailed
study of the case was necessary, however, before definite conclusions
as to the real cause of his trouble could be reached.

I04

REMEDIAL CASES IN READING

Detailed diagnosis. — In the Jones Vocabulary Test he made a score
of 92 on the sight Hst and 94 on the phonetic Hst. Most of his errors
were very sHght and the words which he pronounced often differed from
the printed words in only one letter as queer for queen and het for bit.

Informal tests in oral reading revealed the following facts: {a) he
mispronounced many words in sentences which he recognized correctly
in isolation; {b) he often repeated a phrase several times, missing a
different word each time; {c) he read haltingly and made many errors
which he could correct when his attention was called to them ; and {d)
he recognized individual words rather than words in groups which
indicated that he had a narrow span of recognition. The most significant
explanation for most of these errors was his timidity, self-consciousness,
and lack of confidence which manifested themselves in most extreme
forms at times.

Photographic records of his eye-movements were secured in both oral
and silent reading. The average number of fixations per line, the average
duration of fixations, and the average number. of regressive movements
per line appear in Table XXIV.

TABLE XXIV

Oral Reading

Silent Reading

Items

W. M.'s
Record

Sixth-Grade
Standards

W. M's
Record

Sixth-Grade
Standards

Average number of fixations per line

Average duration of fixations

Average number of regressive move-
ments per line

12.4
13 -5

2.6

8.9
7-3

1-4

II
10.9

3

7-3
5-9

1.6

The entries in this table reveal the following significant facts: (a) he
made a very much poorer record than the average sixth-grade pupil;
ib) his silent-reading habits were very little, if any, differentiated from
his oral-reading habits; {c) his span of recognition was narrow, as
indicated by the large number of fixations per hne; and (c) he recognized
words very slowly as shown by the high average duration of fixations.
In fact, his eye-movement habits were not as effectively developed as
those of an average second-grade child.

Informal tests of interpretation showed that he could reproduce
simple passages satisfactorily and could answer thought-provoking
questions about them when he was not embarrassed. He became
confused in reading selections in which the plot was compHcated or the

DIFFICULTIES IN MECHANICS OF READING 105

meaning subtle. When he was given questions to direct his attention
to the content, he did noticeably better. Furthermore, he was able to
reproduce a greater portion of a passage if he read silently than if he
read orally. This was explained by the fact that he was extremely
self-conscious when reading aloud and failed to direct his attention to
the content.

His failure in the interpretation of more difficult selections was
often due to an inadequate meaning vocabulary and to a limited back-
ground of experience. Many of the situations described in selections
were unfamiliar to him. It was also evident that he had had little
experience in reading material of a problematic nature and that he failed
to think independently about what he read.

Summary of diagnosis. — ^The diagnosis showed that W. M.'s mental
age was two years below his chronological age. He was greatly retarded
in oral-reading accomplishment, due to inaccurate recognition of words
in groups, to a large number of fixations per line, and to long duration
of fixations and frequent regressive movements. His rate of silent read-
ing was much below standard because of difficulties in recognition,
a narrow span of recognition, and irregular eye-movements. Although
he was somewhat retarded in interpretation the diagnosis showed that
his greatest immediate need was training to overcome difficulties in the
mechanics of reading. The most significant explanation of his errors
in reading was his timidity and lack of confidence.

Remedial instruction. — The conclusions reached in the diagnosis
led to the adoption of the following aims for the remedial instruction:
(a) to secure his confidence and co-operation and to stimulate an interest
in improving his ability to read; ib) to increase his mastery of the
mechanics of reading including the development of accuracy in the
recognition of words, increasing his rate and span of recognition, improv-
ing the grouping of words in oral reading and increasing his rate of
silent reading; and (c) to develop more effective habits of interpretation.
In order to accomplish these results, individual instruction was given
for twenty-five minutes each day.

Developing self-confidence and stimulating an interest in improving
his ability to read. — The first step in the remedial instruction was to
assign selections simple enough for him to read with a fair degree of
confidence and accuracy. The selections were chosen with care in order
to stimulate a keen interest in reading. When he read satisfactorily,
he was told that he did well. When he read haltingly and inaccurately,
he was given definite suggestions and was asked to re-read. The reading

lo6 REMEDIAL CASES IN READING

period was kept as informal as possible and the selections were discussed
freely. As a result he became interested in the stories, asked questions,
and expressed his own opinion freely. Later he took interest in over-
coming his difficulties and attacked one problem after another, such as
fluency and accuracy. He also enlisted the co-operation of his mother
and read aloud to her each evening.

Improving his mastery of the mechanics of reading: (a) By using
content as an aid in recognition. — Through the assignment of simple
selections, difficulties in interpretation were reduced to a minimum and
he was able to center his attention on the mechanics of reading. When
a more difl&cult story was used, he was frequently asked to read it
silently first for the content. This enabled him to recognize many
words in oral reading which otherwise would have caused him consider-
able difficulty. If he read passages at sight, a suggestion or question
which directed his attention to the content frequently enabled him to
read with greater fluency and accuracy.

(b) By developing more effective habits of eye-movements. — He read so
haltingly at first and repeated so frequently that his reading closely
resembled that of one who stutters. This was due primarily to his lack
of confidence in recognizing words. Reading a passage silently first
often reduced the number of repetitions and enabled him to proceed
more rapidly and with greater accuracy. By using very simple selections
and by supplying words quickly when he hesitated, he made some
improvement. He was then urged to read rapidly, even if he made
errors, in order to overcome his tendency to repeat and in order to
shorten the duration of fixations. He was frequently asked to read
silently as the teacher read aloud in order to establish the habit of
seeing words in groups and of making no regressive movements. When
he began to repeat in his own reading or to hesitate over the pronunciation
of simple words, the teacher occasionally took up the reading at that
point and read a few paragraphs to him. As a result he was usually
able to proceed with greater fluency and accuracy. A large amount
of sight reading of simple selections was frequently assigned in order to
establish regular eye-movements.

(c) By increasing his span of recognition. — In addition to the training
in grouping words effectively, as described above, he was given quick-
perception exercises each day to increase his span of recognition. The
phrases which caused greatest difficulty in the reading exercises were
written on the blackboard and studied, and they were later printed
on cards and used in quick-perception drills.

DIFFICULTIES IN MECHANICS OF READING 107

(d) By developing accuracy in the recognition of words. — As soon as
progress had been made in fluent reading greater emphasis was placed
on accurate reading. He encountered Kttle difficulty in the recognition
of isolated words but made many errors when they appeared in sentences.
He was frequently told that he had made a certain number of errors in a
sentence and was asked to re-read in order to correct them. Occasionally,
when he met with an unusual number of difficulties, he was asked to
re-read the sentence silently, and then aloud. Drill exercises on phrases
and short sentences were used to increase his accuracy, as well as his
span, of recognition. He confused words which were similar in form
such as come and came, how and now. These words were used in sentences
repeatedly and were finally isolated and printed on card's to be used in
short-exposure drills.

A record of the words most frequently mispronounced was kept,
which revealed the fact that he repeatedly miscalled words beginning
with certain consonant blends such as sp, st, si, pr, and fl. Letters com-
bined with 5 were especially difficult for him. When he failed to recognize
the word slip and called it ship, he was given the word sly which he
knew. A list of words beginning with si was then studied; words con-
taining the sh sound were also presented in another list. He was
asked to make a record of all words beginning with si and sh which he
encountered in his reading for the following day and to add them to his
list. When he began to read more difficult selections, he needed some
help in the pronunciation of polysyllabic words.

Developing more effective habits of interpretation. — When he had made
satisfactory progress in reading simple material accurately, more
emphasis was placed on the interpretation of difficult selections. He
was given definite things to look for while reading or was directed by
lists of questions to the important points. He was frequently asked to
reproduce short selections in order to test his ability to interpret the
content and to help him to overcome his timiditv and his difficulties
in expression. Thought-provoking questions were assigned and he was
asked from time to time to read selections of a problematic type in
order to establish the habit of thinking independently about what he read.

Results. — After eleven weeks of training, he was given the test again.
The scores which he made in October before the training began, his
December scores, and the standard scores for the sixth grade appear
in Table XXV.

The scores indicate that he had made considerable progress in oral
reading and in comprehension although he was not yet up to the standard

io8

REMEDIAL CASES IN READING

for his grade except in the Monroe test in which he scored far above
the standard. The fact that he scored lower in rate of silent reading in
December than in October is difi&cult to explain inasmuch as the daily-
reading exercises indicated that he was reading more rapidly than when
the training began. The results of the tests show that additional

TABLE XXV

Tests

October Scores

December
Scores

Standard

Sixth-Grade

Scores

The Gray Oral Reading Test

The Burgess Silent Reading Test

The Courtis Silent Reading Test:

Rate

Comprehension

The Monroe Silent Reading Test:

Comprehension

21.50
32

153
71

19

38.50
44

128

88

23.2

49
50

191
95

18.5

training in both oral and silent reading was still necessary to bring him
up to the standard for his grade. Near the close of the training period,
his classroom teacher reported that he had made noticeable improve-
ment in all content subjects. He had gained in self-confidence, talked
more fluently, and volunteered to recite and to express his opinions in
class discussions.

CASE L

A THIRD-GRADE GIRL WHO HAD DIFFICULTIES IN THE MECHANICS OF READING
DUE TO IMMATURE LANGUAGE HABITS, FAILURE TO DIRECT ATTENTION
TO THE CONTENT, AND LACK OF A FEELING OF RESPONSIBILITY FOR
ACCURACY IN READING

Introductory statement.— In January, 1922, when the study of this
case began, M. P. was nine years old. She lived in an undesirable
section of the city, and although poorly dressed she was neat and clean.
She was slightly above the standard in weight for her age and was
normal physically in most respects. She was left-handed and did not
enunciate clearly, having difficulty with the pronunciation of words
contaning the letters d, r, w, v, and th. She was noticeably immature
and dependent. Her teachers reported that it was difficult to judge her
ability accurately owing to her extreme timidity.

Preliminary diagnosis. — A preliminary study of the case was made
through the use of standardized tests. The names of the tests, M. P.'s
scores, and the standard third-grade scores are included in Table XXVI.

DIFFICULTIES IN MECHANICS OF READING

1 09

The scores indicate that M. P. was somewhat below the average in
general mentality. She was a slow, inaccurate oral reader, a rapid silent
reader, and was somewhat retarded in interpretation. An examination
of her oral-reading record showed that she read the easiest para-
graphs slowly, recognizing one word at a time. In the more difficult
material she made many errors. She often substituted words which
were only slightly different in form from the printed words, but entirely
different in meaning, as small for same and den for pen. She repeated
frequently to correct mispronunciations and to get the right meaning.
She partially mispronounced some words and occasionally omitted

TABLE XXVI

Tests

M. P.'s Scores

Standard

Third -Grade

Scores

The Illinois Intelligence Test

The Gray Oral Reading Test

The Burgess Silent Reading Test

The Courtis Silent Reading Test:

Rate

Comprehension

The Thorndike-McCall Silent Reading Test.

90

35
38

139
68
36

100
46
50

"3

78
37-3

words or parts of words. She failed entirely in the pronunciation of
many polysyllabic words. She encountered serious difficulty in the
accurate enunciation of words containing the letters r, w, d, th, and v.
The most serious difficulty revealed was the fact that she was usually
not conscious of her word difficulties. Whenever she encountered
words which she did not know she read straight ahead without hesitation,
often completing the sentence with words which changed the thought
entirely. This tendency to read straight ahead doubtless explains, in
part, her relatively high rate of silent reading and the fact that she was
unable to answer many of the questions which were asked concerning
the content of the oral-reading paragraphs.

The wide variation in her comprehension scores was difficult to
explain at first. The low score in the Courtis test was doubtless due to
her tendency to go ahead more rapidly than she could recognize mean-
ings. Additional evidence in support of this general conclusion was
secured through a careful study of the examination sheet in the Burgess
test. In this test she completed seven exercises but did only three of
them accurately. Had she completed all of them accurately her score
would have been 62. Her high score in the Thorndike-McCall test

no REMEDIAL CASES IN READING

was explained by the fact that in this particular case she proceeded
rapidly, as was her nature, but happened to complete more exercises
accurately than the average pupil of her grade.

The preliminary diagnosis showed clearly that M. P. read aloud
slowly and inaccurately, that she read at a relatively high rate silently,
and that she was erratic in interpretation. With these facts in mind
a more detailed diagnosis of her habits of recognition and interpretation
was undertaken.

Detailed diagnosis. — She made a percentage score of 91 in Word
Recognition Test A. Most of the words which she mispronounced
were similar to the corresponding printed words, indicating that she got
a general impression of the word but did not see all of the details accu-
rately. She made twelve errors in Word Element Test A. In seven of
the twelve cases she was able to pronounce the word when she saw it
in a sentence and was able to give other words containing the same
phonetic element, although her responses were slow. This indicated
a fair mastery of the phonetic elements involved.

In the short exposure test, she encountered great difficulty in the
recognition of isolated letters and three-letter non-sense syllables.
Two-, three-, and four-letter words, on the other hand, were recognized
with few errors. In general, phrases required several exposures before
they were recognized with the exception of certain familiar expressions,
such as who is there, which were recognized on the first exposure. This
test showed clearly that she had a narrow span of accurate recognition
and that she had not developed the habit of scrutinizing words with
sufiicient care.

Records of her eye-movements were secured in both oral and silent
reading. A portion of the oral-reading record appears in Plate V.

The first two lines of the record show that her eyes moved regularly
from left to right with but few regressive movements. The third line,
on the other hand, reveals periods of confusion, one of which is illustrated
by the large number of fixations on footprints. The necessity of pro-
nouncing the word or words in such cases interfered seriously with the
regular, forward movement of her eyes. That she disregarded such
difiiculties in silent reading was evidenced by the facts that no periods
of confusion occurred and that she proceeded more regularly along the
lines with few regressive movements. Table XXVII compares the
average number of fixations and regressive movements per line and
the average duration of fixations in both oral and silent reading with
the third-grade standards.

DIFFICULTIES IN MECHANICS OF READING

III

The record shows that she was retarded in the development of effect-
ive eye-movement habits, and that her habits of silent reading were
somewhat superior to those of oral reading in all three respects. The

PLATE V

bi^: storm, and^ll thd grouni

7 3 5

<. ? T

with

<. ? T

isjw^Tie wi

snovw. Th

3 r

4 < as

p niairhas peem wall^ing an^ hjas

- - « T

3 8

made many tMp

5 19 (12

<• 9 7 10

rijis m it. Witih you)' pencil

. T

H 3^ 6 5

34 «i

fact that she made a relatively large number of fixations per line in both
oral and silent reading indicates that her span of recognition was below
the average for her grade.

Informal tests of comprehension were given to secure detailed infor-
mation concerning her habits of interpretation. If the passages used in

TABLE XXVII

Oral Reading

Silent Reading

Items

M.P.'s
Record

Third-Grade

Standards

M. P.'s
Record

Third-Grade
Standards

Average number of fixations per line

Average duration of fixations

Average number of regressive move-
ments per line

II. 6
9.1

2.4

10.4
ID. I

1.8

9.6
7-1

I

8.9
7-9

I 8

these tests were short and simple she was able to reproduce the story
quite well, to get the important points, and to execute directions. When
longer selections of similar difficulty were used, she frequently gave
inaccurate reproductions. She also showed considerable confusion when
thought-provoking questions were asked. The explanation for her
inaccurate interpretation was found in the fact that she did not recognize

112 REMEDIAL CASES IN READING

some of the important words accurately. For example, the word
grief was called grease. Such errors in recognition were frequently
so significant that she missed the important points. When these
mispronunciations were corrected she usually answered questions con-
cerning the content accurately. This indicated that in some cases her
failure to comprehend was due to recognition difficulties. In other
cases, failure to interpret was due to a limited-meaning vocabulary.
In all cases, there was clear evidence of indifference and lack of feeling
of responsibility for accurate, thoughtful reading. In connection with
these informal tests it became apparent that her speaking vocabulary
was distinctly limited and that her language habits were very inaccurate.
These facts doubtless accounted, in part, for inaccuracies in recognition.
The tests also showed that she was very immature in her habits of think-
ing and had not formed the habit of thinking independently about what
she read.

Summary of diagnosis. — The diagnosis led to the conclusion that
M. P. was a slow, inaccurate oral reader because (a) she was immature
and had not developed a feeling of responsibility for accuracy in reading,
{b) she failed to recognize the details of words accurately, {c) she had a
narrow span of accurate recognition, {d) she was unable to recognize
numerous short, unfamiliar words and most polysyllabic words inde-
pendently, {e) her speaking vocabulary was limited, and (/) her language
habits were inaccurate. She read silently at a relatively high rate
because she did not stop to recognize unfamiliar words. Her interpre-
tation of what she read was inaccurate and unsatisfactory due to failure
to give adequate attention to the content, to difficulties in recognition,
and to immature habits of thinking while reading.

Remedial instruction. — A careful study of the results of the diagnosis
led to the adoption of the following program of remedial instruction:
(c) the stimulation of interest in accurate thoughtful reading and the
development of a feeling of personal responsibility for satisfactory
results; ib) the development of habits of accurate recognition in both
oral and silent reading by holding her responsible for accurate inter-
pretations, by quick-perception exercises calculated to increase her span
of accurate recognition, and by exercises to increase her ability to
recognize unfamiliar and difficult words independently; and (c) the
development of habits of independent thinking and good judgment by
assigning thought-provoking questions and problems.

The twenty-five-minute period of instruction which she was given
each day was usually divided into three parts: (i) The first few minutes

DIFFICULTIES IN MECHANICS OF READING I13

of the period were spent in informal discussions of outside reading, in
reproducing stories, or in reading prepared passages orally. (2) The
major portion of the time was devoted to reading simple selections at
sight with emphasis on accuracy of recognition, or to reading more diffi-
cult material silently with emphasis on accurate interpretations and
independent thinking. (3) The remainder of the period was spent in
drill exercises to overcome her difficulties in recognition and to increase
her span of recognition.

Developing a feeling of responsibility for careful work. — Her interest
in overcoming careless habits of oral reading was stimulated by providing
an audience situation. She was frequently asked to prepare a selection
outside of class and to read it aloud to the teacher on the following day.
She was told that when she omitted words, changed words, or failed
to pronounce them distinctly it was impossible for the listener to
understand or enjoy the story. Such a motive usually caused her to
read with greater accuracy and clearer enunciation. She frequently
failed to interpret the content of a story because she read it carelessly.
She substituted words which changed the meaning or failed to direct
her attention to the content, and she therefore missed many interesting
details. In such cases, the teacher occasionally read the selection aloud,
emphasizing the important points. The story was then discussed in
order that she might see how much more interesting stories were when
careful attention was given to their content. She was encouraged to
ask questions when she did not understand passages and to talk freely
about selections which interested her. Through these informal talks,
an effort was made to correct inaccurate language habits, to enlarge
her vocabulary, and to improve her pronunciation and enunciation.
As a result, she soon began to assume more responsibility for the improve-
ment of her reading habits.

Overcoming difficulties in recognition: (a) By developing habits of
accurate recognition through directing attention to the content. — She made
many careless errors in recognition because she did not give attention
to the content while reading. For example, she made such errors as
plum the fields for plow the fields and lived near a swam for lived near a
swamp. In such cases, she was asked to recall the word which would
tell what the farmer did to the fields before he planted the grain, or she
was asked, "Does the word plum mean anything in this sentence?"
Frequent suggestions and questions of this type often prevented errors
or led to their correction. She failed occasionally to recognize words
in more difficult passages because they were new and unfamiliar to her.

114 REMEDIAL CASES IN READING

Such words were pronounced for her at the time and their meaning
made clear. At the end of the period other sentences containing these
words were written on the blackboard. Words which she missed repeat-
edly were also used in sentences in order that she might make correct
associations between them and their meaning.

{b) By developing independence in the recognition of simple words
through the use of phonetics. — Her failure to recognize details of words
was due, in some cases, to the fact that she was not familiar with certain
phonetic elements, such as ar, ow, hi, and pr. The word which caused
difficulty was written on the blackboard, and with it one or two other
words containing a common element. She was then asked to name
other words belonging to the same class. These words were reviewed
and new words were added from time to time until she was able to recog-
nize any words containing a given element. Word endings, such as
ly, er, ed, and ing, were also given special attention.

(c) By increasing the span of recognition. — The reading of words in
thought groups was emphasized from the first. The teacher frequently
read passages aloud in order to illustrate effective grouping to her.
Short phrases printed on cards were used in quick-perception drills.
The length and difficulty of the phrases were increased gradually. As
her span of recognition increased, her rate of silent reading increased
also.

Developing habits of independent thinking and good judgment. — •
Through the use of a variety of selections, her background of experience
was broadened, her meaning vocabulary was enlarged, and her interest
in reading was stimulated. Through the use of thought-provoking ques-
tions she was encouraged to think independently about the content of
what she read. She was frequently asked to express her own opinion
of a story or to tell what she would do in a given situation. For example,
''What would you have done if you had been left in the woods as Mary
was?" "How is this story different from the one you read yesterday?"
"Which story do you like better?" "Why?"

Results. — The period of instruction was continued for nine weeks.
She was excluded from school for two weeks of this time because she
refused to be vaccinated. At the end of the period she was given the
tests again. Her preliminary scores, her final scores, and the standard
scores for her grade are included in Table XXVHL

The scores indicate that she made considerable progress in all
phases of reading. She was above the standard for her grade in rate
of silent reading and in interpretation. Her score in oral reading

DIFFICULTIES IN MECHANICS OF READING

115

indicates that additional training in the mechanics of reading can be
given to advantage.

TABLE XXVIII

Tests

January Scores

March Scores

Standard Third-
Grade Scores

The Gray Oral Reading Test

The Burgess Silent Reading Test

The Courtis Silent Reading Test :

Rate

Comprehension

The Thorndike-McCall Silent Reading
Test

35
38

139
68

36

42.5
56

164
84

38

46
SO

113

78

37-3

CASE M

A THIRD-GRADE GIRL WHO WAS RETARDED IN THE MECHANICS OF READING DUE

PRIMARILY TO FAILURE TO CONCENTRATE WHILE READING

AND TO EXTREME SELF-CONSCIOUSNESS

Introductory statement. — ^A. R. was eight years old, October 2, 1921,
when this study begun. She was the daughter of well-to-do parents
who lived in a very attractive part of the city. Her work in the first
grade was not entirely satisfactory. Summer work was advised but
she failed to take it. Consequently she entered the second grade very
much retarded. It did not seem advisable to have her repeat the work
of the first grade, hence she struggled through the second grade more
or less ineffectively. At the time the study of her case began she was
on trial in the III B grade.

While in the first and second grades, she was nervous and restless,
scarcely able to sit still, and unable to concentrate on anything for
more than a few minutes. She worked very slowly and wasted a great
deal of time. She was interested in what other children were doing,
but rarely concentrated on her own work. She offered to help other
children with their work, but was unable to do her own. By giving her
definite things to do, she slowly developed a sense of responsibility
and pride in her work.

She wanted to read and used a great deal of energy in trying to learn.
Because of her slow progress A. R. had been told (not by her teachers)
that she was stupid and that her failure in reading was a disgrace.
Being a timid, conscientious child, she was naturally very much embar-
rassed. When reading in a group, she was painfully self-conscious.
This condition was far less evident when she was receiving individual

ii6

REMEDIAL CASES IN READING

instruction. Because of her difficulties in reading she had failed to read
widely and consequently had not developed fluent reading habits.

Early in the second grade, her inability to spell had attracted
attention. On account of the numerous errors which were made, it
was concluded that she did not see well. Glasses were provided and
improvement in reading had been quite rapid from that time. Never-
theless in October, 1921, she encountered so many reading difficulties
that diagnostic and remedial work was recommended.

Preliminary diagnosis.- — Table XXIX contains the names of the
tests which were used in the preliminary diagnosis, the scores which
A. R. made, and the standard third-grade scores.

TABLE XXIX

Tests

Standard

Third-Grade

Scores

The Stanford Revision of the Binet-Simon Tests

The Gray Oral Reading Test

The Burgess Silent Reading Test

The Courtis Silent Reading Test, No. 2:

Rate _

Comprehension

100
46
50

113

The results of the tests showed that she was above the average for
her grade in general mental ability, that she was retarded in oral-reading
accomplishment and rate of silent reading, and that she was above
the average in interpretation in the Courtis test and below in the Burgess
test. Failure in the Burgess test was doubtless due to her slow rate of
silent reading. An examination of her oral-reading record showed
that she read at an unusually slow rate and did not group her words
effectively. In the second place, she made frequent errors such as
repetitions to correct mispronunciations, and she miscalled parts of
words, such as even for ever, and ready for reared. Frequently errors
occurred which were the result of filling in the thought without recognizing
the words accurately, such as he was full of mischief, instead of he was
full of business. Her slow rate of reading seemed to be due to care and
deliberateness and to inaccurate habits of recognition. In the more
detailed diagnosis of her case, special attention was given to her diffi-
culties in recognition.

Detailed diagnosis. — In the Jones' \'ocabulary Test, she made a
score of 69.5 on the phonetic list and a score of 86 on the sight list.
These scores indicated decided weaknesses in the recognition of simple

DIFFICULTIES IN MECHANICS OF READING

117

words. Because she scored low on the phonetic Hst, Word Element
Test A was given. Her responses indicated that she was able to recog-
nize simple phonetic elements and to give other words containing the
same sounds. She did this, however, only with considerable difficulty,
which may correlate with the fact that she was a monotone in music.
Informal tests which were given later showed that she had not thoroughly
learned the sounds of some of the initial consonants. Furthermore,
similar words frequently caused difficulty, such as then and when, was
and saw, have and had.

The results of the short-exposure tests are given in Table XXX.

TABLE XXX

Recognition Series

Number of

Items in Each

Series

Number of

Errors in Each

Series

Isolated letters

Two letter non-sense syllables. .
Three letter non-sense syllables

Two letter words

Three letter words

Four letter words

Two word phrases

Three word phrases

26
10
10
10
10
10
10
10

9

9
39

I

S
22

14

The table reveals the following significant facts: (o) A. R. encoun-
tered a large amount of difficulty in the recognition of isolated letters
and non-sense syllables, {b) She had more difficulty with longer words
than with shorter ones. A large percentage of her errors was due to
the fact that the exposures was too brief for her to recognize words
accurately. In many instances she was able to recognize words without
errors when the duration of the exposures was increased slightly.
{c) Her span of recognition was very narrow as shown by her difficulty
in recognizing phrases containing two or three words.

Photographic records of her eye-movements in oral and silent
reading were secured. The essential facts which were revealed are
expressed in numerical terms in Table XXXI.

A study of this facts presented in this table shows that although she
was noticeably retarded in both oral and silent reading her eye-movement
habits were relatively less efficient in the former than in the latter. The
demands of pronunciation in oral reading apparently caused serious
difficulty and resulted in more fixations per line and a larger number of
regressive movements. The fact that she made more fixations per line

ii8

REMEDIAL CASES IN READING

than is normally expected of third-grade pupils indicates that her span
of recognition was relatively narrow.

After several informal tests of comprehension had been given, it
was found that when the words had been recognized she reproduced
what she read very well, answered questions intelligently, and followed
directions accurately. Whenever failure occurred in the interpretation

TABLE XXXI

Oral Reading

Silent Reading

Items

A.R.'sRecord

Third-Grade
Standards

A.R.'sRecord

Third-Grade
Standards

Average number of fixations per line

Average duration of fixations

Average number of regressive move-
ments per line

16.5
10

3-3

10.4
ID. I

1.8

10.
10.7

1.8

8.9
7-9

1.8

of simple passages it was usually found that there had been difficulties
in the recognition of some of the words. It was concluded, therefore,
that A. R.'s major difficulties were in recognition rather than in inter-
pretation.

Summary of diagnosis. — The preliminary diagnosis showed that
A. R. was above the average for her grade in general mental ability,
that she was approximately normal in interpretation, and that she was
retarded in oral-reading accomplishment and in rate of silent reading.
The detailed diagnosis showed that her major difficulties were in recogni-
tion rather than in interpretation. The nature of her difficulties in
recognition may be described in the following terms: (a) inability to
recognize words as quickly as other pupils of her grade; (b) difficulty
in the accurate recognition of some of the initial consonants; (c) a
tendency to confuse words which were similar, such as when and then;
and (d) a narrow span of recognition. The information secured in the
diagnosis led to the conclusion that difficulties in the mechanics of
reading were due to failure to concentrate while reading and to extreme
self-consciousness. The fact that she had had trouble with her eyes
was doubtless a factor in her retardation. Although oculists declared
that her lenses were appropriate for her, she persisted in rubbing her
eyes frequently thus indicating some form of irritation or strain.

Remedial instruction. — In order to secure improvement as rapidly
and as effectively as possible, remedial instruction was organized to
accompUsh the following purposes: (a) to secure her confidence and

DIFFICULTIES IN MECHANICS OF READING 119

co-operation and to stimulate a genuine interest in the reading of many
simple selections and stories; (b) to develop an adequate mastery of the
mechanics of reading, including independence in word recognition, a
wider span of recognition, and a more fluent rate of reading; and (c) to
develop a more thoughtful reading attitude, keener interpretation,
and the habit of thinking independently about what she read.

Inasmuch as A. R. was very timid, shy, and self-conscious, the
first step of the remedial teacher was to become thoroughly acquainted
with her in order that she might feel at ease and free from embarrassment
during the instruction periods. This was accomplished largely through
discussions about her play activities and the things going on in the
classroom. It was difficult, at first, to develop any form of spontaneous
oral expression. She responded in a very low tone of voice and in as
few words as possible. Gradually, however, she began to feel at ease
and appeared to enjoy the period. Her attitude was very good at all
times, because she realized that she could not read as well as her class-
mates and because she was very anxious to improve. The fact that
the instruction which was given was entirely individual proved to be
distinctly advantageous inasmuch as she was thus freed from the self-
consciousness and inhibitions which accompanied group work. Improve-
ment was noticed in the results of individual instruction some time
before it was apparent in the classroom.

On account of the difficulties which she encountered in the mechanics
of reading approximately one-half of the period was given to drill exercises
to develop independence in word recognition, a wider span of recognition,
more effective grouping of words in oral reading, and a more rapid rate
of silent reading. The remainder of the period was devoted to reading
for content. Inasmuch as there was nothing new or unique in the method
of conducting these exercises no further comments are necessary. The
more significant features of the drill exercises will be described at greater
length.

In testing her ability to recognize phonetic words and in providing
effective drill exercises a set of three hundred and twenty phonic cards
were used. A record was kept of the time required to name all of the
words. Those which caused difficulty were noted and used later in
drill exercises. At the beginning of a practice period it was suggested
that she try to reduce the time required to read the set. In October
the time recorded was 18 minutes and 15 seconds and in November it
was Q minutes and 39 seconds. During the month, she had practically
doubled her rate of recognition. Even after this improvement had taken

I20 • REMEDIAL CASES IN READING

place she still made many errors on words which were similar in form,
such as this and that and then and them. Appropriate drill was supplied
through the use of sets of cards which presented these words separately
and in sentences. Similar drills were also conducted for additional
words which caused difficulty in the reading exercises. By means of
repeated daily drills and bv calling her attention to errors, she soon
learned to recognize the details of words more accurately.

Devices were employed at frequent intervals to increase her span of
recognition. First, typewritten sheets of stories were assigned in which
the material was separated into natural thought units by special spacings,
as described in chapter iii. A large amount of time was given to these
exercises inasmuch as A. R. was clearly a word-reader and these exercises
emphasized larger units. She profited considerably by this work, as
evidenced by more effective grouping of words in oral reading and
increased rate of silent reading. In the second place, cards having
increasingly long phrases and sentences were used to develop her span
of recognition. Progress was noted as a result of these exercises although
she gave evidence at times of having lost all that she had gained previ-
ously.

To aid in developing the habit of reading for meaning, cards were
prepared .which contained directions for actions to be performed as,
"Tell me how warm the air is in the room at present." " Draw a picture
of a tennis net on the board and then draw a ball just passing over the
net." Other cards called for oral responses to such questions as
"How old will you be five years from now?" "What things in this
room are made of wood." Because of the rapidity with which these
exercises could be done she enjoyed them and consequently took more
interest in the work.

As progress was made in the exercises described, she gradually
developed a keener appreciation of the stories she read. This was
accomplished through spirited discussions and by gradually imposing
more and more responsibility upon her for mastering the content.
She read the Nixie Bunny books and enjoyed them keenly. She also
frequently anticipated the events as described in succeeding parts of
the story. These facts showed clearly that she was enjoying the story
and gaining in power to secure the thought of what she read.

Results. — The results of the remedial instruction are recorded in
Table XXXII which compares her October and March scores.

The March scores show decided improvement. Much of this
occurred during the last few weeks of the training period. It remains

DIFFICULTIES IN MECHANICS OF READING

121

to be seen whether this was one of her so-called ''spurts" and will be
followed by another "lapse," or whether it was a permanent gain. All

TABLE XXXII

Tests

October Scores

March Scores

Standard

Third-Grade

Scores

The Gray Oral Reading Test

The Burgess Silent Reading Test

41-25
26

39
100

51-25
56

140
100

46
50

113
78

The Courtis Silent Reading Test, No. 2:

Rate

Comprehension

indications are that she has finally made the reading adaptation and
because of her joy in her accomphshment will continue to increase in
ability to read effectively.

CASE N

A FOURTH-GRADE BOY WHO WAS GREATLY RETARDED IN THE MECHANICS OF
READING DUE LARGELY TO LACK OF INTEREST IN READING AND TO
FAILURE TO READ SUFFICIENTLY TO ESTABLISH FUNDAMENTAL HABITS AND

ASSOCIATIONS

Introductory statement. — W. C. was ten years and one month old in
October, 1921, when the investigation began. His parents, who are
Swedish, were in comfortable circumstances and lived in a good residence
neighborhood. They were interested in his progress in school because
they were ambitious for him to succeed in business. They had supplied
him from time to time with numerous books and a small electrical
laboratory.

He entered the first grade at the age of five, which he attended for
more than a year. His progress in the second and third grades was
normal. In the autumn of 192 1, he entered the University Elementary
School and was required to repeat the work of the fourth grade because
of difficulties in reading. Until shortly before entering this school he
had done little or no reading on his own initiative. During the summer
of 192 1, a playmate interested him in some stories which he was reading,
and W. C.'s parents reported that he did considerable independent
reading before entering school in October.

Preliminary diagnosis. — The first step in the diagnosis was to
determine his general intelligence and his accomplishments in oral and
silent reading. Table XXXIII includes the names of the tests which
were used, the scores which W. C. made, and the standard fourth-grade
scores.

122

REMEDIAL CASES IN READING

The results of the intelligence test indicated that W. C. ranked
distinctly above the average in general mental ability, and that any
serious defect in reading should probably not be attributed to low
native intelligence. His oral-reading score was at least two years
below the standard for his grade. His reading was characterized by
frequent repetitions, partial mispronunciations, and the substitution of
one word for another. In the more difficult passages of the test he pro-
nounced accurately some of the difficult words, such as embraced, evident,
contrast, and possession, but encountered serious difficulties with many
polysyllabic words, and mispronounced numerous simple, familiar
words. Questions based on the passages of the test showed clearly that

TABLE XXXIII

Tests

Standard

Fourth-Grade

Scores

The Stanford Revision of the Binet-Simon Tests.

The Gray Oral Reading Test

The Burgess Silent Reading Test

The Courtis Silent Reading Test, No. 2:

Rate

Comprehension

The Monroe Silent Reading Test :

Comprehension

100
47
SO

1 45

he was noticeably stronger in grasping the essential points of simple
material than of difficult passages; also that he encountered genuine
difficulty in remembering details and in answering thought-provoking
questions about passages which contained words that he could not
pronounce. Furthermore, his rate of reading, even of the simplest
passages, was unusually slow due to the fact that he recognized words
individually rather than in thought units.

The results of the silent-reading tests revealed three very interesting
facts: (a) that his rate of reading was below the standard for his grade;
(b) that he interpreted simple passages satisfactorily as shown by his
comprehension score in the Courtis test; and (c) that he encountered
difficulties in the interpretation of exercises of increasing difficulty as
shown in the Monroe test. Informal tests which were given later
supplied additional evidence of this difference between his interpretation
of simple and more difficult passages. They also showed clearly that
as difficulties in recognition increased, his difficulties in interpretation
were multiplied. Inasmuch as he scored very low in both oral reading
and rate of silent reading, and encountered more and more difficulties

DIFFICULTIES IN MECHANICS OF READING

123

in interpretation as difficulties in recognition increased, the tentative
conclusion was drawn that his major weakness was in recognition rather
than interpretation.

Detailed diagnosis. — Additional methods were used to secure more
detailed information concerning his difficulties in recognition. In
the Jones Vocabulary Test he made a percentage score of 93. The
errors which he made showed frequent failure to recognize the details
of words accurately. For example, the word tick was given for trick,
fog for frog, book for brooks and skin for skip. A letter-marking test
was given to determine how accurately he saw the details of a line of
print. In the first test, he made an accuracy score of 78. On the
following day, he was given a similar test with instructions to work

« • 3

he itebl

cin

3alfc oiJe he hides ip

(, A <» 9 13 18

4-1 5 « 3 T

findiU Hehksp

PLATE VI

S 11 T 14 liL. 8 (* 13 9

^y)l3^e i) ether d3g

13 18 II io 10 15 T 3 10 T 4-

ist stolen t^\?o bones,

and

TZ 13 I 12 b

y )ii n js

<» (, 10 5S 4

10 14 15 23 14 71

en^il ind

3 17 18 20

5 45
24 Z5

m^Kel twersjiort,

12 g 7 5 ir

slowly and accurately. Under these conditions all the a's were marked.
When he was asked to work more rapidly he began to make errors.
These tests indicated that he saw the details of v/ords accurately if
given sufficient time, but that he did not see all the details if he was
required to work rapidly. The short-exposure tests which were given
along with the letter-marking tests contributed two additional facts
concerning his recognition habits: (a) although he recognized individual
words accurately, he frequently mispronounced the same words when
they appeared in a sentence; and (b) he had a narrow span of recognition.
Photographic records of his eye-movements in both oral and silent
reading were secured. A reproduction of his oral-reading record appears
in Plate VI.

124

REMEDL\L CASES IN READING

The most significant facts which were revealed by the record were
(a) the large number of fixations per line, (b) the inaccuracy of the return
sweep from the end of one line to the beginning of the next as indicated
by the location of the first fixation in most of the lines, and (c) the
irregularity of the eye-movements as shown by the large number of
regressive movements. The extent of his deficiencies in eye-movements
are expressed in numerical terms in Table XXXIV.

TABLE XXXIV

Oral Reading

Silent Reading

Items

W. C.'s
Record

Fourth-Grade
Standards

W. C.'s
Record

Fourth-Grade
Standards

Average number of fixations per line

Av-erage duration of fixations

Average number of regressive move-
ments per line

14.2
9

3-8

10.3
7-7

2

9-4
7.8

3-4

7-3
6.7

1-4

The entries in this table show clearly that he had less well developed
habits of recognition in both oral and silent reading than average fourth-
grade pupils. The records for silent reading are distinctly better than
those for oral reading which indicated the use of somewhat different
habits in the latter as compared with the former. The number of
regressive movements in both types of reading was excessive and sug-
gested serious irregularities in his eye-movement habits.

Summary of diagnosis. — The diagnosis justified the conclusion that
W. C. was more or less retarded in most phases of reading and that his
difficulties were more pronounced in oral reading and rate of silent reading
than in interpretation. An analysis of his habits of recognition showed
that he had a narrow span of recognition, that he was noticeably less
accurate when reading rapidly than when reading slowly, that his
return sweep from the end of one line to the beginning of the next was
inaccurate, and that his reading, both oral and silent, was accompanied
by a greater number of regressive movements, more fixations per line,
and longer fixations than characterize an average fourth-grade pupil.
In fact, his mastery of the mechanics of reading was similar to that of
a second-grade child, with the exception that he was able to pronounce
a limited number of somewhat difficult words. In the interpretation of
what he read he was noticeably stronger in grasping the essential points
of simple material than in grasping the details and in answering thought-
provoking questions about difficult passages containing words which

DIFFICULTIES IN MECHANICS OF READING

125

he could not pronounce. Inasmuch as he had never read more than
the minimum amount which was required and revealed the character-
istics of a reader in the second grade, it was concluded that his retardation
in reading was due largely to lack of interest and experience in reading.
This conclusion was further supported by the facts that no physical
or mental defects could be found which would interfere seriously with
his progress in reading and that he was distinctly superior in general
mental ability to a fourth-grade pupil of average standing.

Remedial instruction. — With the facts which were described in the
diagnosis clearly in mind, it was concluded that remedial instruction
should aim (a) to interest W. C. in reading a large number of simple,
interesting selections and books, {b) to increase his mastery of the
mechanics of reading, which include developing an accurate return
sweep, increasing his span of recognition, developing fluent habits of
silent reading, and increasing his power of recognizing words inde-
pendently, and (c) to improve his power of interpretation, particularly
in more difficult types of material.

Interest. — An attempt was made, first of all, to discover W. C.'s
chief interests and activities, both in and out of school. When asked
about his school work he expressed enthusiasm for the work in science.
It was discovered that he was also interested just at that time in fairy
stories. Before the remedial instruction had proceeded far he was
carrying a book of fairy stories around with him most of the time. His
interest in these stories was used in getting him to read a sufficient
amount to form fluent habits of reading. Furthermore, the reading-
room teacher co-operated by directing his attention to the better class
of fairy stories. At least two hours each day were spent in outside
reading of interesting stories and books. The increasing rapidity with
which he read stories was evidence of the value of such reading in
establishing fluent habits.

When asked about his home activities he described in some detail
an electric motor, a transformer, and other electrical and mechanical
devices which he had in his small laboratory. When given an opportu-
nity to read selections relating to the story of electricity it was found
that his reading rate was retarded very decidedly because of difficulties
in recognition. Inasmuch as simple accounts of electricity could not
be found, much of his time was devoted at first to reading material of
the fairy-story type. Later when he had gained more control of the
mechanics of reading he gave a great deal of time and attention to the
reading of more technical types of subject-matter.

126 REMEDIAL CASES IN READING

Mastery of mechanics. — Approximately ten minutes were used each
day in various exercises to increase his mastery of the mechanics of
reading. His attention was called first to the fact that his eyes did not
make the return sweep accurately. Very simple selections were chosen
for drill exercises and he was instructed to try to make the return sweep
to the beginning of each line without error. After a few days of conscious
effort marked improvement was noted. The fact that the selections
used in this connection were very simple facilitated the development
of accurate habits.

Flash-card exercises were introduced early to increase his span of
recognition. Sets of cards were prepared for this purpose. The first
set was composed of short words, such as an, and each additional set
included words or phrases of increasing length. Records were kept of
the number of exposures required to recognize words correctly. As
soon as all the exercises of a given set had been recognized without error
the next set was begun. Interest was maintained by urging him to
complete a set successfully each day. These exercises also aided in
increasing his rate of reading. In addition he was frequently given
timed reading exercises or he was asked to see how far he could read in
a given amount of time. In all such exercises he was held responsible
for the content of what he read.

Three devices were employed to improve his ability to recognize
and pronounce words in thought units. In the first place, he was asked
to read typewritten paragraphs in which the subject-matter was divided
into natural groups by elaborate spacings. This device was calculated
to emphasize such units visually. In the second place, the teacher read
to him, giving special attention to effective grouping. This device
emphasized thought units audibly. In the third place, he was asked to
read silently for the purpose of selecting thought units, and then to read
the selection orally for practice in grouping words effectively. Whenever
occasion demanded, his attention was called to errors and the passage
was read to him. After devoting five minutes daily to such exercises
for two weeks, very satisfactory improvement was noted.

Two methods were employed in improving his ability to recognize
words. In the first place, a list was made of the simple words which
were mispronounced during the reading exercises and drill cards were
prepared containing words similar in form, such as this, that, these, and
those. Progress was also secured by insisting upon the accurate reading
of simple material, and through the reading of prepared exercises contain-
ing words which were frequently mispronounced. In the second place,

DIFFICULTIES IN MECHANICS OF READING 127

phonetic exercises and practice in the syllabication of longer words
were introduced to overcome difificulties in the pronunciation of
unfamiliar words.

Interpretation. — Various devices were employed for improving his
power of interpretation. In connection with much of the reading of
simple passages, W. C. was frequently asked to answer questions based
on the content. At times he was asked to read for the purpose of finding
answers to specific questions. At other times he was asked to reproduce
the main points of a story or the details.

In order to study his progress in rate and comprehension in silent
reading, short simple stories were pasted on cards and questions based
on the content were prepared. He was asked to read the story and to
answer the questions. The time required for the reading of these stories
was frequently recorded. Inasmuch as the number of words contained
in the story was known, a record of the boy's rate of reading was secured.
To afford variety in this work, passages of from 50 to 75 words in length
were selected and pasted upon cards. An illustration follows:

Every week* the children* scrub their wooden shoes* with soap and
water* until they are ahnost as white as snow;* then they dry them in the
sun,* or before the fire* in the big open fireplace.*

These wooden shoes* make fine boats,* and sometimes* the boys take
them off* and sail them in the canals.* The little girls* use them for doll
carriages,* or play they are beds,* and tuck their dolls into them* for a nap.*

The number of distinct thought units as indicated by asterisks in the illus-
tration were counted. W. C. was then asked to read a selection and to
reproduce what he had read. Records were kept of the number of
thought units reproduced, as four out of ten, or six out of eight, and the
boy's progress toward complete reproduction was noted and shown to
him. Long stories which continued the same thread of thought for
several successive days were also read and discussed in detail. One
which he seemed to enjoy most was Hulbert's "Forest Neighbors."

Results. — The results of the remedial instruction are shown in Table
XXXV, which contains the scores made at the beginning and at the close
of the period of training, and the fourth-grade standards.

The scores show clearly that marked progress was made in all
phases of reading which were measured by the tests. Furthermore,
the pupil was above the standard for his grade in rate of silent reading
and in interpretation. He was still deficient in the mastery of the
mechanics of reading as measured by the oral-reading test. Inasmuch

128

REMEDLIL CASES IN READING

as he had improved so notably in the interpretation of what he read
and was making very rapid progress in oral-reading accomplishment,
remedial instruction was discontinued.

TABLE XXXV

Tests

October
Scores

December
Scores

Standard

Fourth-Grade

Scores

The Gray Oral Reading Test

33-75
46

118
96

S

40

57

162
100

10

47

The Burgess Silent Reading Test

The Courtis Silent Reading Test, No. 2 :
Rate

50
14"?

Comprehension

The Monroe Silent Reading Test :

Comprehension

89

12.7

On March 6 and 7, 1922, check tests were given to determine if the
improvement noted in the December tests had proved permanent.
The results are presented in Table XXXVI.

TABLE XXXVI

Tests

March Scores

The Gray Oral Reading Test

The Burgess Silent Reading Test

The Courtis Silent Reading Test, No. 2 :
Rate

60
56

156
100

II

Comprehension

The Monroe Silent Reading Test:

Comprehension

The final scores give clear evidence of the fact that the improvement
in oral reading noted in December was not only permanent, but in addi-
tion had materially increased. In silent reading the scores were
essentially the same as the December scores.

SUMMARY OF CAUSES

The five cases which have been reported reveal a large number of
significant causes of difficulty or failure in he mechanics of reading.
(i) Defective vision usually results in difficulties in recognition. (2)
Immature language habits result in inaccuracies which are not character-
istic of the reading of pupils who have fluent command of simple EngHsh
sentences. (3) Self-consciousness and timidity are usually accompanied
by lack of confidence, uncertainty, and inaccuracies. (4) Lack of

•^y

DIFFICULTIES IN MECHANICS OF READING 129

interest in reading results in failure to apply one's self effectively.
(5) A very limited experience in reading results in failure to estab-
lish fundamental habits of association. (6) Carelessness and lack of
feeling of responsibility are serious handicaps because they are accom-
panied by numerous errors. (7) Failure to direct attention to the content
while reading results in many errors which could be avoided if the
content of a passage were clearly in mind; it also deprives the reader
of the aid in recognition which comes from anticipating what follows.
(8) Difficulty or inability to associate the pronunciation of words and
parts of words with their symbols results in inability to recognize and
pronounce words independently and accurately. (9) A narrow span of
recognition retards the rate of reading and results in failure to recognize
and express words in thought groups. (10) Irregular eye-movements
seriously interrupt recognition and result in the dissipation of effort.

CONCLUSIONS CONCERNING REMEDIAL INSTRUCTION

The reports of remedial instruction which have been presented in
this chapter contain more differences than similarities in the methods
and devices which were employed. This is due to the fact that each
case presented a large number of individual problems. An analysis
of the reports reveals several important suggestions concerning remedial
instruction which are applicable to practically all pupils who encounter
serious difficulties in the mechanics of reading. They may be sum-
marized as follows: (i) The training material which is used for a given
child must be simple enough for him to read with a fair degree of
success. If the material used is too difficult he will be discouraged and
unwilling to make the necessary effort to overcome his weaknesses. (2)
In all reading exercises the pupil's attention must be directed primarily
to the content in order to avoid the danger of developing a word-reader.
(3) Numerous drill exercises must be provided to overcome specific
difficulties, such as inaccurate recognition of words or parts of words,
a narrow span of recognition, irregular eye-movements, and inaccurate
return sweeps. These exercises should be given during drill periods
and should not be combined with content reading. (4) As soon as
progress is noted in overcoming a specific difficulty, numerous opportu-
nities should be provided for the pupil to incorporate his improved habits
into all of his reading activities. In this connection frequent sight
oral-reading lessons, numerous silent-reading exercises, and a large
amount of simple interesting supplementary reading material are
valuable.

CHAPTER VII

PUPILS WHO ENCOUNTERED DIFFICULTIES IN RATE OF
SILENT READING

Recent classroom investigations have revealed the fact that pupils
read at widely different rates. The good reader frequently reads as
many as eight or ten words per second. On the other hand, pupils are
found in the same class who read not more than two words per second.
Because of the great difference in the efficiency of good and poor
readers much attention has been given recently to the problem of
increasing the rate of silent reading.

Ability to read rapidly is a good measure of the mastery which a
reader has of the printed page. In the first place, rapid readers usually
understand what they read more effectively than do slow readers.
There are notable exceptions to this general rule, however. In the
second place, the slow reader is unable to pass readily from the printed
symbol to the meaning. The ''mere mechanical processes are obstacles
and he loses time in trying to perform the preliminary mental acts which
are necessary before he can comprehend the passage. In the case of the
good reader, on the other hand, the mechanics of the process are fluent
and rapid. The proficient reader has mastered the words and moves
on without hesitation to the meaning."^

In a detailed discussion of types of readers, the difficulties encoun-
tered by pupils who read slowly should be emphasized. In the investiga-
tions which are reported in this monograph only a very small number
of pupils were studied who were retarded primarily in rate of silent read-
ing. This was due to the fact that the first group of pupils was selected
because of difficulties in the mechanics of oral reading and the second
group was selected because the pupils were retarded primarily in inter-
pretation. If time had permitted pupils would have been studied whose
most significant weaknesses were in rate of silent reading. Because no
clear-cut rate cases were found among the pupils studied the reports of
three pupils who encountered difficulty in rate, as well as in other phases,
of reading are reported in this chapter to illustrate some of the problems
which arise in training pupils who read at inappropriate rates.

' Charles H. Judd, Measuring the Work of the Public Schools, 1916, p. 127.

130

DIFFICULTIES IN RATE OF SILENT READING 131

The first report describes the case of A. N. who was poor in oral
reading, slow in silent reading, and unsatisfactory in interpretation.
Her case emphasizes the fact that a broad program of remedial instruc-
tion is necessary when a pupil is weak in rate as well as in other phases
of reading. The second case, A. M., is somewhat similar to the first.
The fact that his rate of reading did not increase materially as a result
of remedial instruction emphasizes the fact that a larger amount of
training to increase the rate of reading is required in some cases than in
others. The third case, E. A., is distinctly different from the first two.
Her original difficulty was that she read too rapidly neglecting details
both in the recognition of words and in the interpretation of meaning.
In order to overcome this difficulty it was necessary to hold her respon-
sible first of all for the details of what she read. This resulted in greatly
reducing her rate of reading. It was then necessary to introduce a
series of exercises to increase her rate of accurate reading.

CASE o

A FOURTH-GRADE GIRL WHO WAS POOR IN ORAL READING, SLOW IN RATE OF
SILENT READING, AND UNSATISFACTORY IN INTERPRETATION, PRIMARILY
BECAUSE OF POOR ATTENTION WHILE READING AND POOR HABITS OF
THINKING

Introductory statement. — A. N. was nine years and ten months old in
October, 192 1. She came from a very comfortable home where condi-
tions were quite favorable to satisfactory development along all lines.
Her progress in the first three grades had been normal. She had done
very good work in the fundamentals of arithmetic and spelling, but had
encountered difficulties in reading. When she applied for admission
to the University Elementary School in the spring of 192 1, her application
was refused until she had made up her deficiency in reading. Through
the assistance of a tutor she made considerable progress during the
summer. Soon after she was admitted to the Elementary School in
October, it was found that she still encountered numerous difficulties
in reading and was in need of remedial instruction. Furthermore, it
was learned that she was erratic, talked a great deal, and was "flighty."

Preliminary diagnosis. — Five tests were used in the preliminary
diagnosis of the case. The names of the tests, the scores which A. N.
made, and the standard fourth-grade scores appear in Table XXXVII.

The tests indicated that A. N. was a girl of approximately normal
intelligence, that she was retarded about two years in oral-reading
accompUshment, that she read silently at a very slow rate, that she

132

REMEDIAL CASES IN READING

interpreted the passages of the Courtis Silent Reading Test with a fair
degree of accuracy, and that she was noticeably weak in the interpreta-
tion of more dithcult exercises as shown by her score in the Monroe test.
The results of these tests led to the tentative conclusion that she was
greatly retarded in the mechanics of reading and in the interpretation
of passages which required good thinking.

TABLE XXXVII

Tests

Standard

Fourth-Grade

Scores

The Stanford Revision of the Binet-Simon Tests

The Gray Oral Reading Test

The Burgess Silent Reading Test

The Courtis Silent Reading Test, No. 2:

Rate

Comprehension

The Monroe Silent Reading Test:

Comprehension

100

47
50

145
89

12.7

An analysis of her oral-reading record showed that she made errors
of the following types: (a) innumerable repetitions to correct wrong
pronunciations, such as the nest was for the next has; (b) frequent substitu-
tions, such as a for the; (c) numerous omissions and insertions, particu-
larly the insertion of conjunctions and prepositions; (d) many minor
mispronunciations, such as black for lack, stripped for striped and shrill
for sharp; and (e) an unusual number of gross mispronunciations of
such words as scarcely, reared, reason, behind, and other more difhcult
words. The number and character of her errors in recognition were
sufficient to explain her low oral-reading score and her unsatisfactory
rate of silent reading. They did not explain fully, however, her diffi-
culties in comprehension. Accordingly, a more detailed study was made
of her habits of recognition and interpretation.

Detailed diagnosis. — The Jones Vocabulary Test was given to
determine her ability to recognize first-grade words accurately. She
made a score of 90.6 on the sight list and a score of 90.7 on the phonetic
list, which indicated a relatively high percentage of inaccuracies for a
fourth-grade pupil in the recognition of simple words. These errors
involved in most cases the substitution of one letter for another. In
the visual memory test she made errors in two of the twenty exercises,
which was a smaller number than had been made by very good readers
of the same grade. It did not seem, therefore, that her failures in recogni-

DIFFICULTIES IN RATE OF SILENT READING

133

tion should be attributed to poor visual memory. Short-exposure
exercises were also given and the number of errors which we made
in each exercise is recorded in Table XXXVIII.

TABLE XXXVIII

Recognition Series

Number of

Errors in Each

Series

Isolated letters

Two-letter words

Two-letter non-sense syllables.

Three-letter words

Four-letter words

Two-word phrases

Three-word sentences

13

13

6

o

4

14

31

The entries in this table indicate that isolated letters and non-sense
syllables caused considerable difficulty, that two-, three-, and four-
letter words were recognized with few errors, and that phrases were
recognized only after a large number of exposures. These facts show
clearly that she had a narrow span of recognition and frequently failed
to recognize isolated words accurately.

PLATE VII

^ 3413 6T «9 10

he steals jWTC he hides itj^ere no other dog

la £5 5 4 30 B 4 3 <<> 4-

find It. He has just stolen twi bonds, and

can

45 13 \%

4 E 4 3 I S 7

II 10 15 IJL 13 \'\

Vodnjusk tap your pencil aid maki iwo ihbrtl

Photograph records of her eye-movements were secured to determine
additional facts concerning her habits of recognition. A section of her
oral-reading record is reproduced in Plate VII.

Four significant characteristics of her eye-movements are revealed:
(a) she made a large number of fixations per line; (6) fixations occurred

134

REMEDIAL CASES IN READING

both to the right and to the left of the printed Hnes; (c) the return
sweep was inaccurate as shown by the location of the first fixation in
each line; and (d) there were frequent irregularities in the forward
movement of the eyes from left to right as shown by the regressive
movements. The extent of some of her deficiencies are expressed in
numerical terms in Table XXXIX.

TABLE XXXIX

Oral Reading

Sn-ENT Reading

Items

A. N.'s
Record

Fourth- Grade
Standards

A. N.'s
Record

Fourth- Grade
Standards

Average number of fixations per line

Average duration of fixations

Average number of regressive move-
ments per line

12.8
9.6

3-2

10.3

7-7

2

12
6.7

3-6

7-3
6.7

1-4

A comparison of A. N.'s record with the standards shows that
she was far less eflScient than the average pupil of her grade. In fact,
her record did not compare favorably with that of an average second-
grade pupil, except in the case of the duration of fixations. Furthermore,
her eye-movements were quite similar in oral and silent reading with
the exception that the duration of fixations was shorter in silent reading
than in oral reading. All these facts showed clearly that she was an
immature reader who encountered serious difficulties in recognition and
had not adopted habits of silent reading which were different from those
of oral reading.

Careful observation during informal tests of oral reading revealed
additional significant facts. It was very difi&cult for her to keep her
attention centered on the printed lines while reading. Without apparent
cause her eyes frequently left the line to look at illustrations or out of
the window, resulting in serious interruptions in her reading. Further-
more, she read slowly, recognizing one word at a time. On re-reading
she proceeded more rapidly but did not group her words effectively.
It was also observed that her power of word analysis was only fairly
well developed. She hesitated over words which she could recognize
if given sufficient time, thus indicating that recognition did not take
place quickly. Finally, questions which were asked revealed the fact
that she did not follow the content consistently. Whenever the thought
had been mastered her reading was far more effective.

DIFFICULTIES IN RATE OF SILENT READING

In informal tests of interpretation it became very clear that she
to direct her attention to the content and to keep the important point?
clearly in mind. Frequently after reading, it was discovered that she
had given no attention to the content whatsoever. At other times,
questions failed to secure more than the briefest answers. When
questions which required good thinking, the weighing of values, and
sound judgment were asked, it was found that she had not developed
habits of effective thinking. Unless problems were definitely set or
unless she knew that a reproduction or answers to questions would be
required, she got very little from her reading.

Summary of diagnosis. — The preliminary diagnosis revealed the
case of a girl who was a very inaccurate oral reader, who read at an
unusually slow rate silently, who interpreted simple materials satis-
factorily, and who understood more difficult passages inadequately.
The study of her reading habits showed clearly that her weaknesses
in oral reading and her slow rate of silent reading were due to inaccurate
recognition, to a narrow span of recognition, to inaccurate return
sweeps, to irregular movements of the eyes along the lines, and to failure
to direct her attention to the content while reading. These habits were
due, in part at least, to poor habits resulting from lack of interest and
inattention. These same characteristics also explained frequent ineffect-
ive interpretations of simple passages. In the case of more difficult
passages, failure was attributed to inattention, to poor habits of thinking
while reading, and to failure to think independently about what she
read.

Remedial instruction. — It was evident from the facts secured in the
diagnosis that remedial instruction was necessary along at least three
lines: (a) the development of habits of attention and good thinking in
both oral and silent reading; (b) the improvement of habits of recogni-
tion, including the independent recognition of words, increasmg the
span of recognition, eliminating irregularities in the return sweep and
in the movement of her eyes from left to right along the lines, recognizing
words in thought groups in oral reading, and increasing her rate of
silent reading; and (c) the development of the habit of thinking inde-
pendently about what was read and of reaching valid conclusions.

In the beginning of the remedial instruction, an effort was made to
develop an appreciation of the fact that reading is a thought-getting
process. To accomplish this result, interesting and stimulating questions
were asked frequently while she was reading a selection. Her somewhat
futile attempts to answer these questions showed that she was not

136 REMEDI.\L CASES IN READING

directing her attention to the content as she read. As a result of con-
tinued emphasis on thoughtful interpretation she finally realized that
she was expected to give attention to the content.

A second device for developing thoughtful reading habits follows:
Cards were prepared containing such directions as, "Find Old Mother
West Wind on the book shelf. Begin the story on page 21. Read until
you find why Johnny Chuck wandered away from his house." Some-
times the answers were given orally and at other times they were given
in writing. As rapidly as she was prepared for it, the amount of responsi-
bility for thoughtful reading which was imposed on her was increased.

An attempt was made to stimulate thoughtful reading by supplying
reading materials which related to some special line of interest. How-
ever, inasmuch as she had no clearly defined interests, she read one type
of material at first with the same indifference as another. Fairy stories
aroused as much enthusiasm as any that were used. Shortly before
the time of this report she gave evidence of interest in historical stories.

The classroom teachers co-operated in establishing habits of good
thinking by imposing responsibility on her, daily, for the solution of
problems. Her ability to follow a selection or a discussion with
undivided attention improved noticeably although she was still below
the average accomplishment of children of her age at the close of the
experiment.

To develop a wider span of recognition, flash-card exercises containing
words, phrases, and sentences, which gradually increased in length,
were used. She developed speed in this work very rapidly, which indi-
cated that her difficulty was due not so much to inability to recognize
groups of words as to careless habits of recognition or failure in the
past to develop appropriate habits. Timed exercises in reading seemed
to be most effective in eliminating erratic, irrelevant eye-movements.

In order to increase her rate of reading, selections were chosen in
which there were few or no thought difi&culties. Such selections were
necessar}^ in order to promote rapid forward movements of the eyes.
Two methods were employed in using this material. First, she was
required to read several paragraphs in a limited amount of time in order
to find answers to specific questions. Records were kept from day to
day of the amount which she read. Her interest in attaining a satis-
factory^ rate aided her in giving undivided attention to the reading
exercises. As a result, her eyes passed more regularly and rapidly
along the lines. In the second place, she was asked to read many
simple selections outside of school hours to supplement the class exercises.

DIFFICULTIES IN RATE OF SILENT READING

137

This aided in the estabhshment of the fundamental habits and associa-
tions on which fluent silent reading depend.

Results. — The results of the remedial instruction are shown in
Table XL.

TABLE XL

Tests

October
Scores

March
Scores

Standard

Fourth-Grade

Scores

The Gray Oral Reading Test

The Burgess Silent Reading Test

The Courtis Silent Reading Test, No. 2:

Rate ._

Comprehension

37 50
26

90
90

3

42.50
38

136
95

8

47
SO

145
89

12.7

The Monroe Silent Reading Test :

Comprehension

These records show marked progress in both oral and silent reading.
The most noticeable increase was in rate of silent reading. Inasmuch,
however, as she was still somewhat below the standard for her grade in
most phases of reading, it was decided to continue remedial instruction
until her accomplishments approached more nearly the standards for
her grade.

CASE P

A^IfOURTH-GRADE boy who was weak in rate of reading Afrt) IN INTER-
PRETATION BECAUSE OF LACK OF INTEREST IN READING, LIMITED READING
EXPERIENCE, AND FAILURE TO DEVELOP THOUGHTFUL READING HABITS

Introductory statement. — A. M. was twelve years and five months
old when the study of his case began. He came from a home of very
limited means and few intellectual opportunities. He cared little, if
any, for reading, his chief interest being in mechanical contrivances.
His school progress had been irregular, one year having been spent in
the first grade and three years in the second and third grades. In
October, 1921, he began to repeat the work of the fourth grade, due to
irregular attendance during the previous year. Because he was generally
slow in his school work, it was concluded that a careful study of his read-
ing difiiculties should be made.

Preliminary diagnosis. — Five tests were given in the preliminary
diagnosis. The scores which A. M. made and the standard fourth-grade
scores are recorded in Table LXI.

The results of the tests indicated that x\. M. was below the average
fourth-grade child in general intelligence. He was also slightly retarded

138

REMEDIAL CASES IN READING

in oral-reading accomplishment. In the Burgess Silent Reading Test
his score was distinctly low, due largely to his slow rate of reading.
This explanation was supported by two facts: he read very slowly in
the Courtis Silent Reading Test, and he was able to do twice as many
exercises in the Burgess test when they were read to him. His inter-
pretation of simple passages as measured by the Courtis Silent Reading

TABLE LXI

Tests

Standard

Fourth-Grade

Scores

The Stanford Revision of the Binet-Simon Tests

The Gray Oral Reading Test

The Burgess Silent Reading Test

The Courtis Silent Reading Test, No. 2 :

Rate

Comprehension

The Monroe Silent Reading Test:

Comprehension

100

47
50

145

12.7

Test was slightly above the average and his ability to interpret passages
of increasing difBculty as measured by the Monroe Silent Reading Test
was below the average. These facts suggested at first that his major
difficulty was in the mechanics of reading rather than in interpretation.

His oral reading was characterized by an unusual number of repeti-
tions to correct errors. There was a peculiar shifting of the eyes back
and forth, which could be detected readily through observation. As
the difficulty of the material increased, he failed to follow the content
effectively. This fact was indicated by substitutions which changed
the meaning entirely in many cases. Because the preliminary diagnosis
secured evidence of real difficulties in both oral and silent reading, a
more detailed investigation of his habits of recognition and interpretation
was undertaken.

Detailed diagnosis. — In the Jones Vocabulary Test, he made a score
of 94 on the sight list and a score of 91 on the phonetic list. These scores
indicated more inaccuracies in the recognition of simple words than is
normally expected in the fourth grade. The errors made were partial
mispronunciations, such as that for what and track for trick. These
errors indicated that he recognized parts of words correctly but failed
to see or to recognize other parts accurately. Informal tests of oral
reading which were given showed clearly that he could pronounce many
relatively difficult words, such as granite, evidently, examined, material,

DIFFICULTIES IN RATE OF SILENT READING

139

and sparkling, but that he failed to group words effectively and to
recognize small words accurately. As the interpretation of selections
became more difficult and complex the number of minor errors increased.
The results of the short-exposure tests are recorded in Table LXIL

TABLE LXII

Recognition Series

Number of

Items in Each

Series

Number of

Errors in Each

Series

Isolated letters

Two-letter non-sense syllables. .
Three-letter non-sense syllables
Four-letter non-sense syllables.

Two-letter words

Three-letter words

Four-letter words

Two-word phrases

Three- word phrases

26
10
10
10
18
10

ID
ID
lO

8

22

2

O

5

9

17

Three significant facts were revealed by these tests: (0) a large
number of errors was made in the recognition of isolated letters
and non-sense syllables, which indicated that he did not note details
carefully; (6) a relatively small number of errors was made in the
recognition of two-, three-, and four-letter words; and (c) a large number
of errors occurred in the recognition of two- and three-word phrases,
which indicated that his span of recognition was relatively narrow.

Photographic records of his eye-movements were secured for both
oral and silent reading. The records showed that he proceeded regularly

TABLE XLIII

Oral Reading

Silent Reading

Items

A. M.'s
Score

Fourth -Grade

Standards

A. M.'s
Record

Fourth-Grade
Standards

Average number of fixations per line

Average duration of fixations

Average number of regressive move-
ments per line

II. 8
8.

1-4

10.3

7-7

2

II. 6
7-5

2.8

7-3
6.7

1.4

from left to right along the line except where periods of confusion
occurred. He also made a large number of fixations per line. The extent
of his deficiency is expressed in numerical terms in Table XLIII.

It is evident that he made more fixations per fine in both oral and
silent reading than is made by the average pupil of his grade. Further-

I40 REMEDIAL CASES IX READING

more his habits of silent reading differed but httle from those of oral
reading, which indicated a marked degree of immaturity for a fourth-
grade pupil. The most significant fact revealed by the study of his
eye-movement records was the need of increasing his span of recognition,
decreasing the number of fixations per line, and increasing to a marked
degree his rate of silent reading.

Informal tests of interpretation revealed three important facts:
(i) He was able to reproduce a larger amount of material and to answer
questions much more effectively when his attention was directed specifi-
cally to the content than when he was left to his own devices in reading.
(2) Thought-provoking questions that were asked immediately following
the reading of a passage frequently secured no immediate response,
which indicated that he did not think independently about the content
unless stimulated by questions, or other devices, to do so. (3) A general
indifference to the content was manifested which resulted in careless
oral reading and numerous errors, such as repetitions and omissions.
It was also discovered that he had little, or no, real interest in reading.

Summary of diagnosis. — The diagnosis revealed the following
significant facts: (i) he was below the average in general mental abiUty;
he was not interested in reading, and he did Httle or no thinking while
reading, unless stimulated to do so by interesting devices. (2) He was
slightly below the fourth-grade standard in oral-reading accomplishment
and considerably below the standard in rate of silent reading. Errors
in oral reading were largely omissions and repetitions to correct errors.
Mistakes in the recognition of simple words were more prominent
than the mispronunciations of longer words.. Furthermore, as the
passages increased in difficulty to interpret, the number of minor errors
in recognition also increased. (3) In the comprehension tests he made a
satisfactory score in the Courtis test but was less successful in the
interpretation of passages of increasing difficulty. Informal tests showed
that he had not formed the habit of directing his attention to the content
or of thinking independently about what he read. In the Kght of these
facts the conclusion was reached that his major difficulty was in inter-
pretation due to lack of interest, inadequate reading experience, and
failure to develop habits of thoughtful interpretation. Additional
difficulties demanding attention were inaccurate recognition of simple
words, a narrow span of recognition, and a slow rate of silent reading.

Remedial instriiction. — The foregoing diagnosis indicated that
remedial instruction should attempt, first of all, to accompHsh three
results: (a) to develop a genuine interest in reading; (6) to stimulate

DIFFICULTIES IN RATE OF SILENT READING 141

a thoughtful reading attitude and the habit of thinking independently
while reading; and (c) to promote habits of fluent, intelligent reading.
As soon as progress has been secured along these three lines specific
attention should be given to the following problems : (a) the elimination
of inaccuracies in oral reading; {b) the development of a wider span
of recognition in both silent and oral reading; (c) more effective grouping
of words in oral reading; and {d) a more rapid rate of silent reading.

Special attention was given during the early part of the training
period to the development of a keen interest in reading, a thoughtful
reading attitude, and habits of good thinking while reading. It was
soon discovered that A. M. was very much interested in animals and in
animal stories. Therefore the Burgess books, Merry Animal Tales by
Bigham, and other books containing animal stories were among the
first books assigned. He was much more interested, however, in telling
what he had heard about the habits of different animals and the things
he had observed on summer vacations than in reading about them.
It was necessary to suggest interesting questions frequently or to point
out specific paragraphs in which the answers to the questions might be
found, in order to secure a thoughtful reading attitude. Even when
these steps were taken he often missed the significant points in a passage
and had to re-read it one or more times before he interpreted it ade-
quately. His inability to get the thought when reading was noticed
also by the classroom teachers. The history teacher reported that he
was able to do some very good thinking during the discussion periods,
but that he gained very little from reading assigned passages.

In order to aid him in developing effective habits of interpretation
use was made at first of very simple material and he was held responsible
for the details of the passages. When he failed to get the significant
points the remedial teacher frequently said "This is what it says" and
then read to him in order that he might get the thought both through
hearing it and seeing it in printed form. This proved to be a very
helpful device and in time he learned to take a thoughtful attitude
while reading.

As A. M. gained in ability to find answers to specific questions he
was asked to read for complete reproductions. Paragraphs containing
only a few lines were assigned at first, and as he reported what he had
read a record was made of the percentage of ideas reproduced. His
scores were shown to him so that he was aware of the success which
attended his efforts. Occasionally he reported in writing the results of
his reading. Inasmuch as this method was somewhat laborious it

142

REMEDL\L CASES IN READING

was not used very frequently because of the short time devoted to
remedial instruction.

In order that he might be provided with abundant opportunity to
read, assignments were made for home reading and reports on this read-
ing were given on the following day. Home conditions did not offer satis-
factory opportunities for study; therefore less of this was required than
would have proved beneficial.

Much time was devoted to increasing his rate of reading. This
was necessary because he reacted slowly in all of his activities. He
moved deliberately, talked very hesitatingly, and thought slowly.
Flash-card exercises consisting of words, phrases, and sentences were
used at first to increase his span of recognition. His progress was very
satisfactory. In a tachistoscopic test, given in February to the children
of the University Elementary School, he was in the upper quartile of a
group of twenty pupils with whom he was associated. Timed reading
exercises were also used and his progress from week to week was noted.

Results. — The results of the remedial instruction are shown in
Table XLIV which contains the scores made in the March tests.

TABLE LXIV

Tests

December
Scores

March Scores

Standard

Fourth-Grade

Scores

The Gray Oral Reading Test

The Burgess Silent Reading Test

The Courtis Silent Reading Test:

Rate

46.25
34

81
. 90

7

58.75
50

98
98

6

47
50

145

Comprehension

89

The Monroe Silent Reading Test:

Comprehension

12.7

These scores show improvement in most phases of reading. It
should be observed that there was no increase in the score for the Monroe
Silent Reading Test. Whether this was due to a lack of appropriate
types of training, to his physical condition at the time of the test, or to
inadequate native mental ability may be revealed by further study
of his case. The fact that he made but little improvement in rate of
silent reading is very significant. It indicates that much specific
attention is necessary in some cases if satisfactory results are to be
secured in establishing fluent habits of reading. Apparently more
attention should have been given to the problem of rate of reading in
the remedial instruction.

DIFFICULTIES IN IL\TE OF SILENT READING

143

CASE Q

A FOURTH-GRADE GIRL WHO ENCOUNTERED DIFFICULTIES BOTH IN THE
MECHANICS OF READING AND IN INTERPRETATION BECAUSE OF
ERRATIC AND INADEQUATE APPLICATION

Introductory statement. — E. A. was ten years of age in January,
1922, when the study of her case began. She was pale, thin, restless,
and flighty. She was well dressed, neat, and clean. Her teachers
reported that she was quarrelsome, a disturbing element in the school,
and very erratic in her habits of work. A report of her school work in
previous years indicated that her progress had been irregular. She
did fairly good work for short periods of time, very poor work at other
periods, and unusually good work occasionally.

Preliminary diagnosis. — Several standardized tests were used in
the preliminary study of her case. The names of the tests, E. A.'s
scores, and the standard fourth-grade scores are given in Table LXV.

TABLE LXV

Tests

Standard

Fourth-Grade

Scores

The Illinois Intelligence Test

The Gray Oral Reading Test

The Burgess Silent Reading Test

The Courtis Silent Reading Test:

Rate

Comprehension

The Thorndike-McCall Silent Reading Test

100
47
SO

145
89

41-

The scores show that E. A. was slightly below the average in general
mental ability and quite weak in most phases of reading. She was a
slow, inaccurate oral reader, a relatively rapid silent reader when not held
responsible for the content, and noticeably irregular in interpretation.

An examination of her record in oral reading showed that she read
the first paragraph fluently and accurately and that she read slowly
and with an increasing number of errors as the passages increased in
difficulty. She read "jerkily," putting in words, changing the order
of words and filling out the thought of sentences with any words which
completed the meaning according to her fancy. The errors which she
made most frequently were repetitions, insertions, omissions, and
substitutions. Although her difficulties in recognition were serious
enough to interfere with the interpretation of difficult passages, the
extent and nature of her difficulties in the silent-reading tests suggested

144

REMEDIAL CASES IN READING

that she had weaknesses in interpretation which might account for
some of her difficulties in recognition. This suggestion was supported
by the fact that her substitutions in oral reading were frequently
irrelevant and her omissions and insertions often changed the meaning
of passages.

Detailed diganosis. — In order to determine more fully the nature of
her difficulties in the mechanics of reading three tests were given. She
made a score of 88 in the Jones Vocabulary Test, which showed that she
had difficulty in the recognition of simple words. The errors were very
slight in most cases, indicating that she either was careless or did not
recognize the details of words accurately. She made a number of errors
in Word Element Test A but when helped with a word she could readily
give other words containing the same phonetic element. This indicated
that she was able to distinguish the sounds of word elements, but failed
to associate sounds and printed symbols accurately. The short-exposure
tests showed that she recognized two-, three-, and four-letter words
with a fair degree of accuracy. In the case of two-word phrases, she
recognized a few at the first exposure and others only after several
exposures. Most of those which were recognized at sight were phrases
which occurred frequently in her reading. Furthermore, she would
occasionally recognize at the first exposure long expressions, such as
The boys are playing. This may have been due to the fact that the
combination of words was familiar.

In order to secure additional information concerning her habits of
recognition, photographic records of her eye-movements were secured.
A section of her silent-reading record appears in Plate VIII.

The record shows an unus-ual number of fixations per line and a
wide variation in the duration of fixations. There were frequent periods

TABLE XLVI

Items

Oral Reading

Silent Reading

E. A.'s
Record

Fourth-Grade
Standards

E. A.'s
Record

Fourth -Grade
Standards

Average number of fixations per line

Average duration of fixations

Average number of regressive move-
ments per line

13.6
14-5

3

10.3

7-7

2

10.4
9-7

2. 2

7-3
6.7

1-4

of confusion and numerous regressive movements which indicate diffi-
culties in recognition or interpretation. The extent of her deficiencies
is shown in Table XLVI.

DIFFICULTIES IN RATE OF SILENT READING

145

The entries in this table show clearly that E. A. was distinctly
inferior with respect to the average number of fixations per line, the
average number of regressive movements per line, and the average
duration of fixations. Her records were in general very similar to the
records of a poor reader in the second grade who had not yet established
habits of accurate fluent recognition and whose eye-movements were
still \^ry irregular.

The foregoing diagnosis of her habits of recognition revealed weak-
nesses that were difficult to explain. Her eye-movements were irregular
and her span of recognition in reading was narrow. At times she
mispronounced words which she had recognized accurately but a moment

PLATE Vm

^13 4-3 (.7 83

not cark, Th^ bright moon .shone in at the

13 T 5 I't 5

(

1^ 14 9

7 3

2 5 « (. 4 9 II 10 12. 13 14

windo^^ Petlelf coLk'-^elb everything in ;he

it'9 II 3 13 % lO 12. <» \r (c

4 t

T II 5 19 9 i4

2 12 1 3

room.

A]

<. 5 33| 4
\i, 3

one 3 hi)

4 5

t n 5 15

% 15 iit ir

heard a

noise. Feter

before. She recognized phonetic elements in some words that she failed
to recognize in others. Inasmuch as she was able to distinguish sounds
accurately and to recognize large units at single fixations in the short-
exposure tests* it was concluded that her difficulties were not inherent
but were due, in part, to lack of training and to carelessness or inattention.
It might have been concluded at this point that her difficulties in
recognition were sufficient to account for her difficulties in interpretation.
The fact, however, that she made her lowest score in the Courtis test in
which the passages are relatively simple and made higher scores in more
difficult tests, indicated that her difficulties were not due entirely to
weakness in recognition. Additional evidence in support of this con-
clusion was secured in informal reading tests. She was first asked to
read two paragraphs of a story orally; the next two paragraphs were
read to her, and she was then asked to read two paragraphs silently.

146 REMEDIAL CASES IN READING

In each case she was required to reproduce what she had read. She
made a reproduction score of 39 when she read the passages orally, a
score of 32 when the passages were read to her, and a score of 21 when
she read the passages silently. The fact that she did better when she
read orally than when the passages were read to her indicated that
she had difficulties in interpretation which were independent of those in
recognition. Other simple selections were assigned and questions were
asked to test her ability to comprehend what she read. Her responses
were usually meager and showed that she did not direct her attention
to the content. On the other hand, she grasped the main points of a
story occasionally and showed by her answers to questions that she
had thought about them. There was every evidence, therefore, of
the same irregularity in interpretation that was evidenced in the mechan-
ics of reading.

Since the detailed study of her difficulties in interpretation showed
that they were not entirely due to weakness in recognition, other tests
were given to determine to what extent failure to direct her attention
to content was responsible for difficulties in recognition. Accordingly
she was assigned short passages to read silently after suggestions had
been given or questions had been assigned. She was encouraged to
ask for the pronunciation or meaning of words that she did not know.
After she had read a passage silently, it was discussed to insure a clear
understanding of its content. She was then asked to read it orally.
The numbers of errors decreased slightly, but they were different in
kind. There were fewer total mispronunciations and repetitions. On
the other hand, the number of substitutions usually increased although
they did not always change the meaning. Nevertheless, the tendency
persisted to complete sentences without following the printed words
closely.

Summary of diagnosis. — The diagnosis showed that E. A. was
below the standard for her grade in both oral and silent reading. She
was an inaccurate oral reader; her eye-movements were irregular; her
span of recognition was narrow, and she was erratic in recognizing
words and elements of words. A careful study of the causes of her
difficulties in oral reading showed that they were due, in part, to lack
of training, to carelessness or inattention, and to failure to direct atten-
tion to the content of what she read. She was weak in interpretation
primarily because of the fact that she had not formed the habit of
looking for meaning or of thinking independently about what she read;
secondarily, because of difficulties and inaccuracies in recognition. Her
rate of silent reading compared favorably with the standard for her grade.

DIFFICULTIES IN RATE OF SILENT READING 147

Her relatively high accomplishment in this phase of reading was explained
by two facts: she failed to direct her attention to the content, and she
skipped the words which she was unable to recognize readily. These
habits affected not only her rate of reading but, in addition, her accuracy
of oral reading and interpretation. It is apparent from this discussion
that an important problem of remedial instruction should be to teach
her to read at rates which would permit accurate oral reading and
satisfactory interpretation.

Remedial instruction. — Remedial instruction was organized to ac-
complish the following aims: (a) to develop habits of accurate inter-
pretation by holding her responsible for the content of what she read;
(b) to develop habits of accurate oral reading by means of exercises to
develop independence in word recognition, to increase the span of
accurate recognition and to secure more effective grouping of words;
and (c) to establish effective habits of thinking while reading by means
of exercises which require keen interpretation and independent thinking.
In order to accomplish these purposes twenty-five minutes of individual
instruction were given each day.

Developing the habit of directing attention to the content and of interpret-
ing simple selections accurately. — Since many of her errors in recognition
were due to the fact that she read too rapidly and did not direct her
attention to the content while reading, accurate interpretations were
emphasized during the first two weeks. Simple selections were assigned
for oral reading. Each thought unit was prefaced by a suggestion as
to its content, or she was assigned something definite to look for while
reading. She was frequently asked to read a paragraph silently and to
tell what she had read or to answer specific questions. Short selections
cut from books and mo mted on cardboard were occasionally assigned
for outside reading. A short list of questions covering the important
points accompanied each story. She was asked to read the story as
many times as was necessary to secure satisfactory answers, and she
was encouraged to bring questions to the classroom when the meaning
of a passage was not clear. Every effort was made to encourage habits
of thoughtful reading. As she gained in ability to interpret selections,
her interest in reading increased and there was less need for the types
of lessons which have just been described.

Developing habits of accurate recognition: (a) By using content as an
aid in recognition. — Simple familiar selections were used for oral reading
at first in order that she might give her undivided attention to problems
of recognition. She was frequently able to recognize words accurately
because she knew the story. When unfamiliar selections were used,

148 REMEDI.\L CASES IN READING

she was asked to read silently before she read orally. The story was
then discussed to insure accurate interpretation. When she finally
read aloud, the content was familiar and she was able to read fairly
accurately. Later, she was asked to read selections at sight, and it
was found that her difficulties in recognition decreased if each thought
unit was prefaced by suggestions concerning the content.

{b) By establishing correct associations between symbols and meanings. —
Words which she failed to recognize were supplied while she was reading,
but they were used in drill exercises later to insure independent recogni-
tion. The words were written on the board in sentences so that she
could see them in context. This association of meaning and symbols
was a necessary step in developing accurate recognition.

(c) By using phonetics as an aid in independent recognition. — She
had difficulty in recognizing words containing such phonetic elements
as str, scr, ch, ar, ew, and 00. When she failed to recognize ar in the word
star she was given far, car, and other words which she knew. When
the word star was then written in the same list, she was able to pronounce
it. Other words containing the same element were supplied by her
and written on the board. These lists of words were used in drill
exercises until she was able to recognize in many combinations the ele-
ments which caused difficulty.

(d) By holding her responsible for minor errors. — When she omitted
short words or parts of words, substituted one word for another, such as
where for there and come for came, and made other errors due entirely
to carelessness, she was frequently told the number of errors that she
had made in a paragraph, and she was asked to re-read it correctly.
When her attention' was called to errors she could usually correct them
without additional help.

Increasing her span of recognition. — During the latter part of the
training period, much attention was given to the recognition of words
in thought groups. Sentences which caused difficulty were written on
the board and she was asked to read them silently first and then to
read them aloud, grouping the words effectively. The crayon was
sometimes passed rapidly under the words that belonged together in
order to emphasize accurate phrasing. An example follows, The little
boy fell down and hurt his knee. In addition, short phrases printed on
cards were used in quick-perception drills. The length of the phrases
was increased as rapidly as her span of recognition developed.

Developing keener interpretation and encouraging independent thinking
in more difficult selections. — As soon as she had made satisfactory progress
in interpreting simple material, more difficult selections were assigned

DIFFICULTIES IN RATE OF SILENT READING

149

and more time was given to silent reading. She was given lists of ques-
tions to direct her attention to the most important points. After reading
a selection she was asked other questions to test her ability to think
independently about what she read. She was encouraged to discuss
stories, to tell which ones she liked best, and to express her opinion con-
cerning points discussed in the stories.

Increasing her rate of silent reading. — Although she made a satis-
factory rate score in the preliminary test, it was found that this score
was not a true index of her rate of silent reading because she omitted
words that she did not recognize at sight. After she had formed the
habit of thinking about the content while reading, she felt a greater
responsibility for accurate recognition and she read very slowly. As
her span of accurate recognition increased, she began to read more
rapidly. She had just reached the point in the reorganization of her
reading habits at the close of the training period when specific exercises
to increase the rate of silent reading could have been given to advantage.

Results. — ^At the end of nine weeks of instruction, she was given the
tests again. Her January scores, the scores which she made in March,
and the standard scores for her grade are included in Table XLVII.

TABLE XLVII

Tests

January Scores

March Scores

Standard

Fourth-Grade

Scores

The Gray Oral Reading Test

31
26

144
10

34

38.62
44

107.6
76

40

47

The Burgess Silent Reading Test

The Courtis Silent Reading Test :

Rate

SO
14=^

Comprehension

The Thorndike-McCall Silent Reading
Test

89
41.8

The scores indicate that she had made some progress in oral reading
and considerable progress in interpretation, although she was not up to
the standard for her grade in either case. Her rate of silent reading in
March was below her rate in January for reasons which have already
been explained. Frequent absences interfered to some extent with her
progress. It is evident that additional training along the lines which
have been described was still necessary.

CONCLUSIONS CONCERNING REMEDIAL INSTRUCTION

Cases have been reported in which ineffective rates of reading
have been corrected through the use of one or two devices such as

150 REMEDIAL CASES IN READING

exercises (c) to establish regular movements of the eyes from left to right
along the printed line, (b) to develop rapid recognition of words, (c) to
promote accurate recognition of words in groups, (d) to develop a wide
span of recognition, (e) to direct attention to the content, (/) to stimulate
interest in reading a large number of simple interesting stories, and (g)
to develop the habit of reading at a maximum rate by means of timed
reading exercises. These and many other methods of increasing the
rate of silent reading have been described in recent discussions. The
cases which have been reported in this chapter emphasize the fact that
a pupil may read slowly because of poor or inaccurate habits in other
phases of reading. In such cases the pupil's rate of reading cannot be
improved until these related habits have been corrected. Therefore,
remedial instruction to improve the rate of silent reading may include
exercises in the mechanics of oral reading and in the interpretation of
what is read.

The various studies reported in this monograph justify a second
conclusion concerning remedial instruction in silent reading which may
be expressed as follows: emphasis on the rate of silent reading is usually
inappropriate before pupils have learned to recognize words as rapidly
as they are able to pronounce them. Investigations have shown that
some pupils reach this stage in their development as early as the second
grade. Other pupils encounter so many difficulties in recognition that
they nevei learn to read fluently. As a rule pupils in the third grade
begin to read silently more rapidly than they read orally. Teachers
should guard against undue emphasis on rate until the rudimentary
habits have been thoroughly established. As soon as specific exercises
to increase the rate of reading are appropriate, much time and energy
should be devoted to the establishment of fluent habits.

A third suggestion which comes from the study of pupils who fail
to read satisfactorily is that some read too rapidly and neglect details.
In such cases the pupil's attention must be directed to the content and
he must be held responsible for the accurate recognition of words and
their meaning. This usually results in decreasing the rate of reading
temporarily. As soon as habits of accurate recognition and interpreta-
tion have been established, exercises should be introduced to increase
the rate of accurate reading. The statement should be added that
similar cases must be studied very carefully in order that effective
instruction may be given at each stage in the reorganization of the
pupil's habits.

STATE TEACHERS COLL-CGE
SANTA BARBARA. CALIFORNIA

CHAPTER VIII

PUPILS WHO WERE WEAK IN PRACTICALLY ALL PHASES
OF READING

Four distinctly different types of cases have been discussed in
the preceding chapters, namely, "Pupils Who Had Made Little or No
Progress in Learning to Read," "Pupils Who Encountered Serious
Difficulty in Interpretation," "Pupils Who Encountered Difficulties
Primarily in the Mechanics of Reading," and "Pupils Who Encountered
Difficulty in Rate of Reading." It is very appropriate that the last
type of remedial case to be discussed should relate to pupils who were
weak in practically all phases of reading.

There are interesting and significant differences between the cases
reported in this chapter and those in earlier chapters, (i) The cases
described in chapter iv had made little or no progress in learning to read ;
consequently they were weak in all phases of reading. The cases which
are described in this chapter had made considerable progress in learning
to read, but were weak in practically all phases of reading. (2) Each
case described in chapters v, vi, and vii was weak in a particular
phase of reading, such as interpretation, the mechanics of reading, or
the rate of silent reading. Each case described in this chapter was
weak in practically all phases of reading. (3) The cases reported in
this chapter encountered difficulties in several phases of reading, each
weakness usually accentuated by difficulties in other phases. The cases
reported in earlier chapters had difficulties in several phases of reading
that could usually be attributed to serious weakness in a particular phase.

Pupils who are seriously retarded in most phases of reading are
found in almost every classroom. They are unable to do satisfactory
work in the reading class or to prepare assignments in content subjects
satisfactorily. Their deficiencies are both quantitative and qualitative.
Because current methods of school organization do not provide the
necessary time or energy for individual instruction, retarded pupils
soon become discouraged and in far too many cases discontinue school
work. The diagnostic and remedial studies which have been recently
reported provide convincing evidence that the difficulties which many
pupils encounter can be overcome successfully if appropriate remedial
instruction is provided.

151

152

REMEDIAL CASES IN READING

Fortunately for the classroom teacher, pupils who are weak in
practically all phases of reading can be readily distinguished, (i) They
fall below the standard scores in all reading tests, with but few exceptions.
(2) They read aloud inaccurately and they fail to interpret what they
read silently. (3) They are unable to prepare assignments in content
subjects in the usual length of time. (4) Whenever difficulties are
encountered in reading, they are unable to solve their problems
independently. (5) They are not interested in the reading exercises
and they do little or no reading on their own initiative. The foregoing
list of common characteristics is supplemented by significant individual
differences in the reports which follow.

CASE R

A FOURTH-GRADE GIRL WHO WAS GREATLY RETARDED IN THE MECHANICS OF
READING AND SOMEWHAT RETARDED IN INTERPRETATION DUE PRIMARILY
TO CARELESS READING HABITS, INADEQUATE ATTENTION TO THE CONTENT,
AND LIMITED EXPERIENCE

Introductory statement. — B. P. was ten years old in October, 192 1,
when the study of her case began. She was deficient in language ability
and her background of experience was limited. Her teachers reported
that she was timid, careless in her habits of work, indifferent concerning
her progress, and very irregular in attendance. She had chronic appendi-
citis which caused her to be absent frequently and which, no doubt,
affected the quality of her work to some extent. She was not interested
in reading and her work in all content subjects was unsatisfactory.

Preliminary diagnosis. — The names of the standardized tests which
were used in the preliminary diagnosis, B. P.'s scores, and the standard
fourth-grade scores are included in Table XLVTII.

TABLE XL VIII

Tests

Standard

Fourth-Grade

Scores

The Illinois Intelligence Test . . .
The Gray Oral Reading Test. . . .
The Burgess Silent Reading Test
The Courtis Silent Reading Test:

Rate

Comprehension

The Monroe Silent Reading Test

Comprehension

100
47
SO

145
89

12.7

These scores indicate that B. P. was considerably below the average
in general intelligence and in oral- reading accompUshment. She was

WEAK IN ALL PHASES OF READING 153

below the standards for her grade in rate of silent reading and in ability
to interpret what she read in all tests except the Courtis. A study
of her oral-reading record showed that she read very inaccurately. She
omitted and inserted short words, repeated frequently, made many
slight errors, such as over for ever, and encountered difl&culties in the
pronunciation of polysyllabic words. A study of her test papers in
silent reading showed that she had difiSculty in answering questions
about simple passages and that she encountered a great deal of difficulty
in the tests which required independent thinking. As far as could be
determined, she was retarded both in the mechanics of reading and in
interpretation. Furthermore, it seemed that the difficulties in each
accentuated the difficulties in the other. In order to secure additional
information concerning her reading difficulties, a more detailed study of
her case was undertaken.

Detailed diagnosis. — In the Jones Vocabulary Test, she made a
score of 90 on the sight list and 74 on the phonetic list. Whenever
errors occurred, the words which were pronounced usually differed very
slightly from the printed word, as big for dig and ship for skip. Many
errors were due to carelessness, as shown by the fact that she was able
to correct them without assistance when her attention was called to them.
Other errors were due to the fact that she did not know some of the
simple phonetic elements. In the visual memory test, she made five
slight errors. The fact that she was able to correct the error in most
cases, when told that her first attempt was incorrect, supplied further
evidence that she did not see details accurately, due very largely to
carelessness.

Informal tests in oral reading revealed several significant facts
(i) She frequently mispronounced words in context which she recognized
accurately when isolated. (2) Many substitutions, such as trust for
taste, and rob for rub, indicated that she did not direct her attention to
the content. (3) She had difficulty in distinguishing different forms of
the same word, such as come, came, and coming, or work, worked, and
working. (4) She repeated frequently either because the thought was
not clear or to correct errors. (5) She had some knowledge of phonetics
as shown by her ability to recognize certain word elements, but she
failed to use her knowledge effectively. (6) She read very haltingly
because of word difficulties and because she recognized individual
words rather than groups of words at each fixation.

Informal tests in silent reading revealed evidence of a limited
background of experience and an inadequate meaning vocabulary.

154 REMEDIAL CASES IN READING

Furthermore, her difficulties in the pronunciation of polysyllabic words
interfered with the interpretation of the thought of more difficult
passages. In simple selections her weakness in interpretation was due
largely to the fact that she had not formed the habit of directing her
attention to the content. She was satisfied with a general impression
of the story and was unable to answer specific questions concerning the
content or to think independently about it. When told beforehand
that she would be asked to retell a story, she reproduced the points
satisfactorily.

Summary of diagnosis. — The diagnosis showed (a) that B. P. was
below normal in general intelligence, {b) that she was a poor oral
reader due to the inaccurate recognition of simple words in groups, to
difficulties in the pronunciation of polysyllabic words, to careless reading
habits, and to failure to direct her attention to the content while reading,
(c) that she was below the average for her grade in rate of silent reading
because of word difficulties, frequent repetitions, and a narrow span
of recognition, and {d) that she was considerably retarded in interpreta-
tion due primarily to her low native intelligence, an indifferent attitude
toward reading, limited experience, an inadequate meaning vocabulary,
ineffective habits of reading, and difficulties in the mechanics of reading.
The diagnosis revealed two additional facts of significance : (o) although
her difficulties in recognition were more pronounced than those in
interpretation, the former were due largely to inadequate attention to
the content; and {b) she encountered difficulties both in recogni-
tion and in interpretation which were independent of those in the
other.

Remedial instruction. — In the light of the facts secured in the diagnosis,
remedial instruction was organized to accomplish three major purposes:
{a) to awaken an interest in reading, to extend her experience, and to
develop a feeling of responsibility for accurate work; (Z>) to develop the
habit of looking for meaning in all reading exercises, and to promote
habits of good thinking while reading; and (c) to overcome difficulties
in the mechanics of reading and to increase her rate of silent reading.
In order to accomplish these purposes, she was given individual instruc-
tion for twenty-five minutes each day. A great deal of time was spent
during the first few days in informal discussions to discover her interests
and to promote her acquaintance with the teacher. During the first
few weeks most of the reading was oral in order to discover the exact
nature of her difficulties and to give any help that was needed. Accurate
recognition was emphasized although content was considered of primary

WEAK IN ALL PHASES OF READING 155

importance at all times and was used as an aid in recognition. Silent
reading was assigned later and special attention was given to interpre-
tation.

Extending her experience and awakening an interest in reading. —
She was not interested in reading at first because she understood very
little of what she read. The experiences described in the stories were
new to her and the meaning of many words was not clear. Simple
selections, based on a variety of experiences, were assigned. The
stories were discussed by the teacher, meanings of words were explained,
and additional information was given. Several closely related stories
were also assigned to enlarge her experience along given lines, and other
stories were told to her. Plays based on dramatic stories were frequently
assigned. Stage settings, costumes, and characters were discussed in
order to stimulate keen interest in reading these stories. Discussions
of the selections which were read showed that she liked fairy stories
best. Several familiar ones and many new ones were assigned. Later
she became interested in animal stories and stories of adventure.

Developing habits of thoughtful reading. — Short selections containing
one or two important points and but few details were assigned at first.
Her attention was directed to the essential points by giving specific
directions and suggestions, such as "Find out why the goose in this
story was called foolish." When she read selections at sight, comments
or suggestions concerning the content were made from time to time
and questions were asked (a) to test her comprehension of what she had
read, {b) to emphasize the important points, and (c) to aid her in keeping
the facts in mind in correct sequence. For example, she was asked
" How many people has the boy met ? " " What did each one tell him ? "
" The next paragraphs will tell how the boy used what he learned from
each." "How was he helped by the cobbler's story?" If she had
difficulty in understanding a passage it was read to her and the meaning
was discussed.

She was frequently asked to reproduce stories in order to discover
some of the causes of her difficulties in interpretation. It was found
that she failed at times because she did not get the meaning of key
words or because she did not direct her attention to the content while
reading. When told that she would be asked to reproduce a story,
she read more carefully and made greater effort to understand all of the
essential points. When selections were assigned for silent reading, she
was given a Hst of questions to stimulate and guide her thinking. After
reading a selection, she was asked to look over a list of questions before

156 REMEDIAL CASES IN READING

she answered them aloud. If she was not sure of the answers, she was
permitted to re-read the relevant parts.

Thought-provoking questions were asked about all of the selections
which she read in order to stimulate independent thinking. Exercises,
such as the following, were sometimes assigned to test her ability to
interpret stories and to follow directions.

1. Write the names of the two animals that ran a race.

2. What was to happen to the animal which won the race?

3. Which animal won ?

4. Which animal asked the man to help ?

5. WTiat did the man do ?

6. If you think the man did right, draw a line under the word "right."
If you think he did not do right, draw a circle around it.

7. Was it the horse which got his wish ?

8. Write a sentence which tells what you think of the horse.

Overcoming difficulties in the mechanics of reading: (a) By using
content as an aid in recognition. — Such substitutions as big for beg and
had for hid indicated that she did not look for meaning while reading.
When her attention was directed to the content of selections, as described
in the preceding paragraphs, the number of errors decreased noticeably.
Words which caused difficulty were used in sentences at the end of each
period in order that she might study their meaning more carefully
and make the correct associations.

(b) By holding her responsible for accurate reading. — Inasmuch as
she was able to correct many errors without further help when her atten-
tion was called to them, she was asked to read passages accurately the
first time. When she failed to do so, she was given specific suggestions
and was asked to re-read. Sometimes she was told that she had made a
certain number of errors in a sentence and she was asked to correct them
without additional assistance. Whenever she read accurately and
efifectively, she was commended for her effort. Slowing down her rate
of oral reading also helped her to read more accurately. Words such as
through and though which she repeatedly confused were used in sentences
for several days. They were then written on cards and used in drill
exercises to aid in rapid, accurate recognition.

(c) By using phonetics and ear training as an aid in recognition. —
Many minor errors in reading were due to the fact that she did not hear
differences in the sound of words. She had difficulty in distinguishing
between the sound of short e and of short i and she used such words as
lit and let interchangeably. When asked to name words containing

WEAK IN ALL PHASES OF READING

157

short i, she frequently included words containing short e. If several
words containing short i were pronounced very distinctly and then
written on the board she could usually add others to the hst. The
simplest words containing short i were given at first in groups with the
same ending, such as sit, bit, a.nd fit, pin and win, fill and will. Words
were then presented in lists with different endings and initial consonants,
such as sit, win, hid, still, and since. After short e had also been given,
lists of words, such as bed, his, then, and hill, were presented in drill
exercises in order to test her ability to recognize them accurately. Other
short vowels were taught in the same way when she failed to recognize
words containing them. Several consonant blends, such as spr, str, bl,
and st, were given special attention.

(d) By establishing the habit of grouping words effectively. — She made
many errors because she did not recognize words in thought groups.
She read very haltingly and frequently paused in the middle of phrases,

as "The boy ran to see the fire." This was due, in part, to the

fact that she frequently failed to recognize words when she saw them in
sentences, but primarily to the fact that she had never acquired the habit
of grouping words effectively in oral reading. Directing her attention
to the content and emphasizing correct phrasing overcame her difficulties
to some extent. She was then given quick-perception drills on phrases,
such as once there were and there was once, which she frequently confused,
and on other phrases selected from reading exercises.

Results. — The training was continued for eleven weeks. She was
absent at least one period each week and was frequently absent for

TABLE XLIX

Tests

October Scores

December Scores

Standard

Fourth-Grade

Scores

The Gray Oral Reading Test

The Burgess Silent Reading Test

The Courtis Silent Reading Test:

Rate

Comprehension

26.25
20

95
75

4

37.25
50

lOI

80.75
9-5

47
50

145
89

12. 7

The Monroe Silent Reading Test:

Comprehension

several days at a time. After an absence of a few days, she would
lapse again into her careless habits of reading and it was necessary to
repeat much of the remedial work. At the end of eleven weeks she was
given the tests again. The scores which she made in October and
December and the standard scores are included in Table XLIX.

158

REMEDIAL CASES IN READING

The scores indicate that she had made considerable progress in all

phases of reading but that she was not yet up to the standard for the

grade except in the Burgess test. It is evident that additional training

was needed in oral reading, in interpretation, and in rate of silent

reading.

CASE s

A SIXTH-GRADE BOY UTIO WAS RETARDED IN BOTH RECOGNITION AND INTER-
PRETATION, BUT \\TIOSE DIFFICULTIES IN THE INTERPRETATION OF
SIMPLE PASSAGES WERE OF MOST SIGNIFICANCE

Introductory statement. — C, L. was thirteen years old when the
study of his case began in January, 1922. He seemed to have no physical
defects which interfered with his progress in reading. His parents
were foreign-born and he had a tendency to mispronounce words con-
taining th. He was poorly dressed and it was evident that his home
conditions were unsatisfactory. His teachers reported that he was
lazy and indifferent. He was deliberate in all of his movements and
slow in his mental reactions.

Preliminary diagnosis. — The tests which were used in a preliminary
diagnosis of the case are named in Table L; also C. L.'s scores and the
standard sixth-grade scores.

TABLE L

Tests

Standard

Sixth-Grade

Scores

The Illinois Intelligence Test

The Gray Oral Reading Test

The Burgess Silent Reading Test

The Courtis Silent Reading Test:

Rate _

Comprehension

The Thorndike-McCall Silent Reading Test.

100
49
50

191
95
53-7

The tests showed that C. L. was decidedly below normal in general
mental ability, that he was retarded approximately a year and a half in
oral-reading accomplishment, that he read silently much more slowly
than the average pupil of his grade, and that he scored somewhat below
the average in comprehension, particularly in the Thorndike-McCall
test.

A study of his oral-reading record showed that he read simple
passages fluently and with few errors. As the difficulty of the paragraphs
increased, the number of errors increased also, resulting in repetitions,

WEAK IN ALL PHASES OF READING

159

omissions, and occasional substitutions which did not change the meaning
materially. His most noticeable error in difficult paragraphs was the
partial mispronunciation of polysyllabic words, such as profusion and
persistently. Questions relative to the content of paragraphs brought
out the fact that he did not know the meaning of many words which he
could pronounce. This interfered seriously with his grasp of the essential
ideas of a passage.

The preliminary diagnosis failed to reveal a complete explanation
for his low scores in reading. In some tests it seemed as if recognition
difficulties were most pronounced; in other tests it appeared that he
had difficulties in interpretation which were independent of those in
recognition. Additional diagnostic steps were therefore taken to de-
termine which type of difficulty was most significant.

Detailed diganosis. — In Word Recognition Test A, he made a score
of 100 which showed that he could pronounce simple isolated words
accurately. In Word Element Test A, he recognized all the words at
sight and was able to give other words containing the same phonetic
elements. The short-exposure test was given to determine his span of
recognition. He recognized the single letters and the two-, three-, and
four-letter words at the first exposure. He made six errors in recognizing
six two- word phrases, such a,s for fun and more cake, two errors in recog-
nizing six three-word sentences, such as who is there, and eight errors in
recognizing six three-word phrases, such as bright warm sun. The most
serious defect revealed by these tests was a narrow span of recognition.

Records of his eye-movements in both oral and silent reading were
secured. A reproduction of a portion of his silent-reading record
appears in Plate IX. The most striking characteristic of his reading

TABLE LI

Oral Reading

Silent Reading

Items

C. L.'s
Record

Sixth-Grade
Standards

C. L.'s
Record

Sixth-Grade
Standards

Average number of fixations per line .

Average duration of fixations

Average number of regressive move-
ments per line

13.2
6.4

3-2

8.9

7-3

1-4

12. 2
6

1.6

7-3
5-9

1.6

revealed by the record is the large nimiber of fixations per line. In
Table LI this and other characteristics of his reading are compared
with the standards for the sixth grade.

i6o

REMEDIAL CASES IN READING

It is apparent that he had not developed the habit of recognizing
large units at each fixation in silent reading. In fact, he did not do so
well as an average second-grade pupil. With respect to the duration of
fixations and the number of regressive movements per line, he was only
slightly retarded. In oral reading, on the other hand, he made 3.2
regressive movements per line which is more than is usually made by
second-grade pupils. A comparison of the average number of fixations
per line in oral reading and in silent reading shows clearly that he had
not established habits of eye-movements in the latter which were
distinctly different from those in the former. The two constructive

PLATE IX

10 8 II 3

not (Isrk

3 5

idow.

The brigh; mooi shone ii a1 the

8 5 T <.

2 3 4 5 (.

T %

winoow. Peter

could see

everything

3 T T T 8 8

7. I53(.4r 8 3 11 10

room.

ZT (o 3 10 5

Al it o:ice hu heai'd a noise.

HI the
t 1+

Peter

5 3 T

suggestions which resulted from the study of these records are the
importance (a) of eliminating regressive movements in oral reading
and (b) of increasing the span of recognition and reducing the number
of fixations per line in silent reading.

The foregoing studies of recognition showed that he had little or no
difficulty in recognizing simple isolated words, but that difficulties were
frequently encountered in the recognition of polysyllabic words. Fur-
thermore, the diagnosis showed that he had a narrow span of recognition.
This doubtless accounted in part for his slow rate of silent reading,
for his failure to recognize words in thought groups, and for frequent
errors in the recognition of simple words in sentences.

Informal tests were next given in order to study more fully his
difficulties in interpretation. He responded readily to questions based
on simple narrative stories, but his responses showed that he frequently

WEAK IN ALL PHASES OF READING i6l

failed to direct his attention to the important points. He encountered
special difficulty in the interpretation of stories and selections which
were not factual in character. He was unable to use his imagination
effectively in picturing unfamiliar situations. Furthermore, when
asked for his opinion, or when asked questions which required inde-
pendent thinking, his responses were often meager. When called upon
to read orally, he was usually able to read accurately the passages
which had caused difficulty in interpretation. These facts indicated
clearly that his power of interpretation of simple passages was less fully
developed than his power of recognition. In more difficult passages
he read mechanically and often failed to get the thought because of his
limited meaning vocabulary. For example, in one story the word porce-
lain occurred. He thought it was a kind of oil and evidently had con-
fused it with petroleum. Undoubtedly his lack of interest in school work
and his low native intelligence contributed directly to poor interpretation.

Summary of diagnosis. — The diagnosis showed that C. L. ranked
below the average for his grade in general mental ability and in all phases
of reading which were tested, that he read simple passages aloud with
few errors, and that he encountered difficulties in the pronunciation of
polysyllabic words. Furthermore, he had a narrow span of recognition
which resulted in a slow rate of silent reading, in the inaccurate recogni-
tion of simple words in oral reading, and in failure to recognize words
in thought groups. It appeared in the preliminary diagnosis that
difficulties in recognition were more serious than difficulties in interpreta-
tion. The detailed diagnosis revealed the fact that he was unable
to interpret many passages which he could read accurately, that he
failed to think independently about what he read, that he had little
or no ability in picturing unfamiliar situations, and that he had a limited
meaning vocabulary. It was concluded, therefore, that difficulties in
interpretation were of most significance.

Remedial instruction. — The following aims of remedial instruction
were adopted: {a) to secure his interest and whole-hearted co-operation;
{b) to emphasize the accurate interpretation of simple passages, including
clear thinking and independent judgment about what he read; {c) to
supplement this training by exercises calculated to improve his span of
recognition, his rate of silent reading, and the recognition of words in
thought groups in oral reading; and {d) to introduce, as need arises,
training in the recognition of polysyllabic words.

C. L. was given individual instruction for twenty-five minutes
each day. The time was used as follows: (a) the first few minutes

1 62 REMEDIAL CASES IN READING

were devoted to informal discussions, reports, reproductions, or answers
to questions based on outside readings; (b) most of the time was spent
in silent reading or in reading selections orally with attention directed
primarily to the content; and (c) the remainder of the time was spent
in drill exercises to overcome his difficulties in the mechanics of read-
ing. The methods and devices which were used are described in the
following paragraphs.

Securing interest. — Through informal talks and by observing what
he selected at the reading table, it was found that he liked animal stories,
stories of adventure, and selections based on history. These facts
furnished a basis for the selection of reading material for class exercises.
When the selections were based on historical facts he was asked to recall
the setting from his own knowledge of history, or the necessary back-
ground was supplied. In stories of other types, his interest was fre-
quently aroused by telling parts of them to him or by relating incidents
associated with them. 'Every opportunity was used to expand meanings,
to make additional associations, and to suggest closely related stories
for outside reading. In order to stimulate his imagination, fairy tales
and myths were introduced. He became interested in several Greek
myths which were read in class, and he asked for stories to read at home.
He also read Viking tales, folk stories of different lands, and imaginative
stories. When given a book from which to choose a story, he frequently
read several selections and occasionally read the entire book. He became
sufficiently interested in reading to ask how he might secure books from
the public library. The necessary instructions, together with a list of
suitable books, were given to him by the training teacher.

Overcoming difficulties in interpretation. — He was assigned short
and very simple passages at first and accurate interpretation of their
content was required. Definite assignments were made in order to
direct his attention to the important points. For example, the following
suggestions were made: "Determine why the wolf faUed to catch the
fox," or "Find out how many places the boy visited." "What did he
get in each that was of use to him later." As soon as he was successful
in interpreting simple selections, more difficult ones were assigned.
A list of questions covering the main points of a story served as a guide
in his silent reading. If he failed to answer a question, he was shown
the paragraph containing it and was asked to re-read it. If he failed
to interpret it satisfactorily, the passage was read to him and difficulties
were explained. He was encouraged to discuss selections and his
comments often revealed the fact that he had attached wrong meanings
to words. He was frequently told that he would be asked to reproduce

WEAK IN ALL PHASES OF READING 163

the important points of a story that he had read outside of school. This
made it necessary for him to remember incidents in correct sequence
and to determine relative values in deciding which were the important
points. He was encouraged to think independently about what he
read by such questions as "Did the wolf deserve his punishment?"
"Why?" "How might he have escaped?" "In what ways were the
wolf and the fox different?" "What other title would have been
appropriate for this story?" A wide variety of selections of an imagi-
native and problematic type was used in order to stimulate his imagina-
tion, to broaden his background of experience, to enlarge his meaning
vocabulary, and to encourage good judgment in given situations.

Increasing his span of recognition. — Considerable attention was
given to the recognition of words in thought groups in oral reading.
Passages were read to him and effective grouping of words was empha-
sized. Questions which directed his attention to the content frequently
aided in securing appropriate grouping. For example, after reading
very poorly such a sentence as "The fox lived at the foot of the hill,"
he was asked " Where did the fox live ? " He was then directed to re-read
the sentence. Short phrases which caused difficulty and those which
he encountered frequently were printed on cards and used in quick-
perception drills. A record was kept for several weeks of the number
of errors made each day in order that he might be informed concerning
his progress. When his record on short phrases was satisfactory, he
was given other exercises containing longer phrases. As his span of
recognition increased, his rate of silent reading increased also. Wide
reading of simple material was also valuable in increasing his rate of
silent reading.

Increasing his ability to recognize simple words and to pronounce
polysyllabic words. — Attention was given to certain phonetic elements
that caused difficulty in the recognition of simple words, such as
ight in bright, ea in plead, and kn in knight. He was also given the
following rules which enabled him to determine when vowels were
long or short, (i) When a one-syllable word has only one vowel, that
vowel is usually short, as in hat. (2) When there are two vowels together
in a word, as in seat, the first vowel is usually long and the second one
is silent. (3) A final e in such words as late and hope makes the preceding
vowel long. In this connection, he was shown that hat becomes hate and
not becomes note when a final e is added.

When he encountered diSiculties in the pronunciation of polysyllabic
words, they were analyzed for him. In this way, he learned that they
were frequently made up of words which he already knew, combined

164

REMEDL^L CASES IN READING

with certain prefixes and suffixes. He was shown how words are built
up as come, become; play, playful, playfully; and, turn, return, returning.
Lists of words based on his difficulties and containing such prefixes as
re, ex, de, in, and pro and such suffixes as er, ess, ing, ly, and tion were
studied.

Results of the training. — After nine weeks of instruction, he was
given the tests again. He was excluded from school two of the nine
weeks because he refused to be vaccinated. This shortened the actual
period of training to seven weeks. The scores which he made before
training, after training, and the standard scores for his grade are included
in Table LII.

TABLE LII

Tests

January Scores

March Scores

Standard

Sixth-Grade

Scores

The Gray Oral Reading Test

The Burgess Silent Reading Test

The Courtis Silent Reading Test:

Rate

Comprehension

The Thorndike-McCall Silent Reading

Test

<

41

38 -

143
93

42

52.5
62

155
95-5

50

49
50

IQI

95
53-7

These scores indicate that in March he was slightly above the standard
for his grade in oral reading and in ability to interpret what he read in
the Burgess and the Courtis tests. He was somewhat below the standard
in the Thorndike-McCall test and in rate of silent reading. According
to these scores his greatest need at the close of the training period was
exercises to increase his rate of silent reading.

CASE T

A THIRD-GRADE BOY WHO WAS RETARDED IN BOTH ORAL AND SILENT READING

DUE VERY LARGELY TO DIFFICULTIES IN LEARNING TO RECOGNIZE

WORDS ACCURATELY AND READILY

Introductory statement. — D. H. was ten years old in October, 192 1.
His home conditions were excellent; he had access to books and magazines
suitable for a boy of his age, and his parents had read to him almost
daily and had encouraged him to read for himself. On inquiry it was
found that several members of the family had difficulty in learning to
read and that a sixteen-year-old brother had never learned to read
satisfactorily. D. H. had no physical defects likely to interfere with

WEAK IN ALL PHASES OF READING

165

his progress in reading except crowded and protruding teeth. This
defect interfered with clear enunciation and the accurate pronunciation
of words. According to the reports of his teachers, he was poor in all
subjects which required reading. He had failed to be promoted to the
fourth grade and was discouraged because his twin sister was two
grades ahead of him. He was interested in all school activities, was
industrious, and seemed capable of doing good work. He acknowledged
that he disliked reading and had done very little of it outside of school
because he could read only with great effort.

Preliminary diagnosis. — A preliminary study of the case was made
through the use of five standardized tests. The names of the tests,
D. H.'s scores, and the standard third-grade scores are included in
Table LI II.

TABLE LIII

Tests

D. H.'s Scores

Standard

Third-Grade

Scores

The Illinois Intelligence Test

The Gray Oral Reading Test

The Burgess Silent Reading Test

The Courtis Silent Reading Test :

Rate

Comprehension

The Haggerty Reading Examination, Sigma I

Test I

Test II

85

36.25

26

79
61

100
46
50

113
78

16
14

The scores indicate that D. H. was below the standard in intellec-
tual ability and considerably retarded in all phases of reading. His low
score in the intelligence test was due largely to failure in exercises which
required reading. An examination of his oral-reading record showed
that he read at an unusually slow rate, made numerous errors in the
simplest passages, and totally mispronounced many words in the more
difficult passages. He did not score on any of the passages beyond
the fourth. His most frequent errors were (a) substitutions of such
words as found for full, small for same, mud pies for maple sugar, and
please for puss which changed the meaning considerably, ib) omissions
or additions to parts of words, such as Jack for Jackie, like for likes,
around for round, and every for ever, (c) repetitions, and {d) occasional
omissions of short words. The fact that he substituted one word for
another or totally mispronounced the key words in sentences caused
him to become confused and to make other errors.

l66 REMEDI.\L CASES IN READING

It was apparent that his difficulties in recognition, even in simple
passages, were sufficient to interfere with his ability to interpret what
he read. Further evidence in support of this view was gained in a
study of his test sheets in silent reading which showed that he scored
noticeably higher in exercises in which the vocabulary was simple and
contained words with which he was familiar. In order to determine
to what extent his difficulties in interpretation were due to difficulties
in recognition, a more detailed study of the case was made.

Detailed diagnosis — In the Jones Vocabulary Test, he made a score
of 85 on the sight list and 66 on the phonetic list. These scores showed
that he had difficulty in recognizing very simple words and either that
he had little knowledge of simple phonetic elements or that his knowledge
did not aid him in the recognition of words while reading. It was also
evident that his difficulties were not confined to one type. He some-
times missed the initial consonant, the ending of a word, or the vowels.
Most of the words that he substituted were similar in form, which showed
that he did not recognize all of the details of words or that he failed to
make the correct associations. It is interesting in this connection to
know that when he encountered a difficult word, he usually spelled the
word to himself.

Additional informal tests in oral reading showed that he read very
haltingly, recognizing one word at a time. He often missed a key word
in a sentence, which usually led to other errors. He sometimes realized
that he had mispronounced a word and he repeated to correct it. At
other times, because of difficulties in recognition, he lost the thought
of the sentence and repeated to get the meaning of what he had read
or to get a clue to the pronunciation of a difficult word. He was often
able to recognize a word, such as white, if told that the word described
the color of a cat. Furthermore, he was frequently able to recognize
such words as upon and into after they had been separated into syllables.
He had great difficulty with words beginning with consonant blends,
such as spl, fr, bl, and sw. He was unable to determine whether the
vowels in such words as made, hop, spite, and fed were long or short
unless the content of the sentence made it clear.

Photographic records of his eye-movements were secured in order
to study the character of his fixations in both oral and silent reading.
A reproduction of a portion of his oral-reading record appears in Plate X.

The record reveals four significant characteristics of his reading;
namely, an unusually large number of fixations, very long fixation periods,
a large number of regressive movements, and inaccurate return sweeps

I

WEAK IN ALL PHASES OF READING

167

from the end of one line to the beginning of the next. The extent of
his deficiencies are revealed in Table LIV.

TABLE LIV

Oral Reading

Silent Reading

Items

D. H.'s
Record

Third-Grade

Standards

D. H.'s
Record

Third-Grade
Standards

Average number of fixations per line

Average duration of fixations

Average number of regressive move-
ments per line

13.6
85.4

2.4

10.4
10. 1

1.8

16
16. 2

4-7

8.9
7-9

1.8

The entries in the table show that he made more fixations and
regressive movements per line in both oral and silent reading than
the average pupils of his grade and that the number of fixations and
regressive movements was larger in silent reading than in oral. The
most striking fact revealed by the table was the very long duration of

23 51 ■♦- (t t r 5

WspeaiyMie ne hides i: m\

27 9 +g 30 3 2T T' 14 IS

PLATE X

« T S "0 1/(2 13

eri no o:he:' dog

27 T' H 15 53 1+ 10

«, 10 T 12 «

9 13 IT 15 l» 14 Ko l9

caiJfiyit. nihak ji^4l()len|

WD bcnei ,

15 14- 14-

33 8(. 24 13 4 10

am

11 2.0 10 to i 15 % 23

you must taKr:f^eur per cilind nake

12 13 14-

two snotrt,

41 13 13 3(. (• <• 34 10«

442

fixations, particularly in oral reading. This was due in part to several
very long fixation periods.

Informal tests of comprehension showed that he was able to reproduce
what he read and to answer thought-provoking questions about the
content of passages in which he encountered few recognition difficulties.
He was able to interpret more difficult passages satisfactorily after
errors in recognition had been corrected. In a specific exercise, he read
aloud two paragraphs of a selection and made a reproduction score of

l68 REMEDL\L CASES IX READING

38. He read the next two paragraphs silently and made a score of only
19, which indicated that he probably omitted words in his reading
when he was not required to pronounce them. When two other para-
graphs of similar difficulty were read to him, he made a reproduction
score of 70. This high score suggested that when he was freed from the
responsibilities of recognition he was able to interpret the meaning of
simple passages very effectively. In other tests, he answered thought-
provoking questions intelligently when he was not handicapped by
difficulties in recognition. All these facts indicated quite clearly that
his difficulties in the mechanics of reading were more serious than, and
largely responsible for, his difficulties in interpretation.

Summary of diagnosis. — The diagnosis showed that D. H.'s mental
age was one and one-half years below his chronological age. He was
retarded in oral-reading accomplishment for several important reasons:
(a) he failed to recognize the details of words accurately; {h) he did not
associate sounds and printed symbols readily; ic) his fixations were
unusually long; and {d) he recognized isolated words rather than
groups of words at each fixation. His rate of silent reading was very
slow because of word difficulties and a narrow span of recognition.
His weakness in the interpretation of simple passages was due almost
wholly to difficulties in recognition. His inability to interpret difficult
passages was attributed to inability to recognize words and to ineffec-
tive habits of thinking while reading.

Remedial instruction. — The primary purpose of remedial instruction
was to overcome his difficulties in the mechanics of reading. This
included the development of ability to recognize words independently,
increasing the rapidity of recognition, and increasing his span of recogni-
tion. A secondary purpose of remedial instruction, although a very
important one, was the development of more effective habits of inter-
pretation which included stimulating a thoughtful reading attitude and
the habit of thinking independently about the content of what he read.
In order to accomplish these purposes, he was given individual instruction
for twenty-five minutes each day. The greater part of the time was
devoted to reading a large amount of simple material in order to establish
correct reading habits. Attention was given to the content at all times
in order to encourage habits of thoughtful reading and to aid in recogni-
tion. A part of the period each day was devoted to drill exercises to
overcome specific difficulties in the mechanics of reading.

Stimulating an interest in reading. — The first steps in remedial
instruction aimed to create a desire, on his part, to read and to stimu-

WEAK IN ALL PHASES OF READING 169

late an interest in his progress. He enjoyed hearing stories but was not
eager to read them for himself. His favorite stories were selected from
the readers which he knew and, if possible, simpler versions of these
stories were found in other readers. The teacher read the more difficult
parts to him and he was asked to read the easier parts. He became
interested in finding out how a story differed from the one he knew,
and frequently wanted to discuss both of them and to tell which one
he liked better. When the stories appeared in dialogue form, he and
the teacher took different parts. This device never failed to interest
him and he tried very hard to read well. In addition to the familiar
stories referred to, interesting stories were selected from primers
and first readers which he did not know. His interest was aroused
through the pictures or through comments about the stories. Because
they were simple, he could read them fluently and he gained confidence
in his ability. Whenever improvement was noted he was compli-
mented and encouraged.

He soon became interested in the books on the reading table and he
looked at the pictures. He often remarked, "I think this story would
be interesting because the pictures are so funny." He was permitted
to choose one or two stories in this way each day. If they were too
difficult for him to read alone, the harder parts were read to him or he
was permitted to take them home for his mother to read to him. In
the case of very difficult stories which he selected, he was advised to
postpone reading them until later. He soon formed the habit of coming
early in order that he might have more time to look through the books
and to read the easier stories silently. A story was sometimes begun at
school and when he was sufficiently interested he took the book home
to finish it. After he had made considerable progress in reading, he
became interested in A Child's Robinson Crusoe written by Nida. The
first chapter was read to him and he was told a part of the story. A
few minutes of each period for several days were spent in reading a new
chapter. He then took the book home to finish. He brought it back
occasionally to read a chapter or to tell what he had read. Answers
to questions about the content revealed the fact that he was interpreting
satisfactorily what he read. His mother reported that he got up early
each morning until he finished the book in order to read an hour before
breakfast. He soon did a great deal of outside reading and frequently
remarked, "I like to read now."

Overcoming difficulties in the mechanics of reading: (a) By using
content as an aid in recognition. — The use of familiar selections, as

I70 REMEDL\L CASES IN READING

described above, enabled him to give detailed attention both to the
content and to the accuracy of his reading. When a new selection was
assigned, he was asked to read it silently first and his attention was
directed to the content in order that he might read it aloud more accu-
rately and fluently. When he was asked later to read passages at sight,
the thought units were prefaced by questions and suggestions. The
words which caused difficulty were used in sentences on the board as a
means of helping him to recognize them in context.

(b) By developing ability to recognize words independently. — Although
exercises in recognizing words in context were very helpful, additional
instruction was necessary before he was able to recognize the details
of words. He confused words beginning with m and n and often substi-
tuted one word for another, if it completed the meaning of the sentence
satisfactorily. A word causing difficulty was written on the board
together with others containing a given element. Initial consonant
sounds, vowel sounds combined with consonants, vowel digraphs, and
consonant blends were studied. In his case, phonetics served as a very
helpful tool and enabled him to make the correct association between
sounds and their symbols. Later he was given simple rules which
assisted him in determining when vowels should be long or short. When
he encountered unfamiliar words and pronounced them correctly, he
frequently made a remark such as, " I knew that word was coach because
I remembered that when there are two vowels the first one is long and
the second one is silent."

(c) By increasing his rapidity of recognition and enlarging his span
of recognition. — As he gained in ability to recognize words independently,
his rate of recognition increased. To overcome his tendency to read
one word at a time and to decrease the length of the period of fixation,
he was given exercises to increase his span of accurate recognition.
Furthermore, sentences which he read poorly were written on the board
and he was shown which words belonged together. They were then read
to him and the phrasing was emphasized; for example, The little dog
had a bone. He was then asked to read the sentence rapidly and put
the words together in appropriate groups. Through imitation and
suggestions, he soon learned to group words more accurately. Whenever
he began to read one word at a time and to hesitate while reading, the
teacher read several paragraphs to him. He was usually able to read
more rapidly and to group words better after hearing the teacher read.

Some attention was given also to establishing more accurate return
sweeps of the eyes from the end of one line to the beginning of the next.

WEAK IN ALL PHASES OF READING

171

Selections from primers were used for this purpose because the lines were
short and farther apart than in other books. He was encouraged to
read to the end of the line and then to make the return sweep quickly
to the first word in the next line and to read on without repeating.
He was asked to re-read passages until he was thoroughly familiar
with them and could make the return sweep without error. The use
of a marker for a few days frequently proved of great value.

Developing more effective habits of interpretation. — It was found that
he had little difficulty in interpreting simple selections. When more
difficult passages were assigned for silent reading, emphasis was placed
on interpretation. Thought-provoking questions were asked to stimu-
late independent thinking and his attention was directed to the content
in all reading exercises.

Results. — The tests were given again at the end of eleven weeks of
training. His preliminary^ scores, his December scores, and the standard
scores for his grade are included in Table LV.

TABLE LV

Tests

October Scores

Standard

Third-Grade

Scores

The Gray Oral Reading Test

The Burgess Silent Reading Test

The Courtis Silent Reading Test :

Rate

Comprehension

The Haggerty Reading Examination,
Sigma I :

Test I

Test II

36.
26

79
61

25

46
50

113
78

16
14

The scores indicate that he had made considerable progress in all
phases of reading except rate of silent reading. His score in oral reading
closely approximated the standard for his grade. His comprehension
scores in the Haggerty and the Courtis tests were slightly above the
standard scores. His unsatisfactory score in rate of silent reading can
be explained by the fact that the training which he had received in accu-
rate recognition had made him conscious of word difficulties. Conse-
quently, he paused frequently to determine the pronunciation of
unfamiliar words. It is apparent that additional training was necessary
to increase his rate of silent reading.

172

REMEDIAL CASES IN READING

CASE U

A FOURTH-GRADE GIRL WTIO WAS GREATLY RETARDED IN ORAL READING AND
SOMEWTIAT RETARDED IN INTERPRETATION BECAUSE OF LACK OF
INTEREST AND A CARELESS, INDIFFERENT ATTITUDE TOWARD READING

Introductory statement. — In November, 1921, G. S. was ten years
old. She was somewhat above the average in weight and was slow and
deliberate. She had no physical defects which were likely to interfere
with her progress in reading. She was well dressed, neat, and clean,
and her home conditions were satisfactory. She was required to repeat
the work of the third grade on account of absence due to scarlet fever.
According to the report of her teachers, she had always been a disturbing
element in a group, was irresponsible, and decidedly indifferent concern-
ing her progress. Her work in all subjects, in the judgment of her teach-
ers, was below the standard of which she was capable.

Preliminary diagnosis. — The tests named in Table LVI were used in
the preliminary study of her case. The scores made by G. S. and the
standard fourth-grade scores are also included.

TABLE LVI

Tests

Standard

Fourth-Grade

Scores

Illinois Intelligence Test

The Gray Oral Reading Test

The Burgess Silent Reading Test,
The Courtis Silent Reading Test:

Rate

Comprehension

The Monroe Silent Reading Test:

Comprehension

100
47
50

145

12.7

The scores indicate that G. S. was above the average in general
intelligence but below the standard for her grade in oral reading and in
most phases of silent reading. A study of her oral-reading record
showed that she read even the simplest passages slowly, haltingly, and
inaccurately. Observations made while she was reading revealed the
fact that she had not developed regular habits of eye-movements.
She did not recognize words in thought groups, and she repeated fre-
quently {a) to get the thought, {b) to group the words efifectively, or
(c) to correct mispronunciations. She inserted and omitted short words
or parts of words, substituted one word for another, and totally mis-
pronounced many simple words. Her errors in the more difficult

WEAK IN .\LL PHASES OF READING 1 73

passages indicated that she had not grasped the thought. The number
and character of her oral-reading errors in the simplest passages suggested
that her difficulties in recognition, her inability to see words in thought
groups, and het irregular eye-movements were sufficient to account
for her low comprehension scores. However, a more detailed study of
her reading habits was necessary before final conclusions could be reached
in regard to the exact nature of her difficulty.

Detailed diagnosis. — Three tests were given to secure additional
information concerning her difficulties in recognition. In Word Recogni-
tion Test A she made a score of 94. The words which she pronounced
when errors were made were always similar in form to the printed words,
frequently differing in only one letter. This indicated slight inaccuracies
in recognizing the details of words. Few errors were made in Word
Element Test A and these were corrected when she saw the words in
simple sentences. Furthermore, she had no difficulty in giving other
words containing the same phonetic elements. The short-exposure
tests showed that several exposures were necessary before some of the
letters and short phrases were recognized and that many exposures
were necessary before the longer phrases were recognized. On the other
hand, she recognized the two-, three-, and four-letter words fairly accur-
ately. It was evident from these tests that she recognized short isolated
words readily with few inaccuracies, that she had a fair mastery of
simple phonetic elements, that she frequently mispronounced simple
words when they appeared in phrases or sentences, and that her span
of recognition was narrow.

Further evidence concerning her habits of recognition was secured
from photographic records of her eye-movements. A section of her
oral-reading record is reproduced in Plate XI.

Three significant facts were noted in a study of the record, (i)
There was an unusual number of fixations. (2) The fixations did not
occur in regular order from left to right. (3) There were periods of
confusion as shown in the latter half of the first line. These character-
istics are usually found in immature readers who have not mastered
the mechanics of reading. Additional facts were secured by calculating
the average number of fixations per line, the average duration of the
fixations, and the average number of regressive movements per line in
both oral and silent reading. A summary of these facts appears in
Table LVII.

The facts presented in this table show that she made more fixations
per line in both oral or silent reading and made longer fixations than

174

REMEDIAL CASES IN READING

are usually made by fourth-grade pupils. These facts account in large
measure for her slow rate of reading. In this connection it should
be noted that her habits of recognition in silent reading were somewhat
more effective than those in oral reading. The large number of fixations
per line supplied further evidence of a narrow span of recognition.

TABLE LVII

Oral Reading

Silent Reading

Items

G. S.'s
Record

Fourth- Grade
Standards

G. S.'s
Record

Fourth -Grade
Standards

Average number of fixations per line

Average durations of fixations

Average number of regressive move-
ments per line

iS-6
II. 6

6

I0.3

7-7

2

II. 4
9-4

3-4

7-3
6.7

1-4

The most striking fact revealed by the eye-movement records was
the large number of regressive movements. In general, these might
have been due to word difficulties, to confusion arising from seeing
several words together, or to careless habits of reading. Inasmuch as
she did fairly well in Word Recognition Test A and recognized isolated

PLATE XI

I 3 5 T 4 13 <. 9

nortji whele iJ it cilfl. Thdri ha j Hpst ieeH^

15 10 14 II l(>

20 tz n 5 7 II 10 u

18 14

4 ^ 12. 4 n <•

4. 2 (, 7 8 la 5 13 II 3 14 10

big^sJornP Lnd aHdhWrouk^d is )lhike witlr^

22 17 J <i r 3 13 15 II 5 5 6. 7 T 1 +

sno

■3 -i. S i ^ <• 73 10

W. The iwan has bbten jLadrf^ pnd has

iZ IT 8 5 r II 29 « 2.4

words accurately in the short-exposure tests, it was concluded that
difficulty in the recognition of individual words was probably not the
entire explanation. Since it had been discovered in the short-exposure
tests that she had difficulty in recognizing words in groups, it was

WEAK IN ALL PHASES OF READING 175

concluded that the cause of numerous regressive movements and poor
accomplishment in the mechanics of reading could be attributed largely
to a narrow span of accurate recognition.

In searching for additional explanations for her difficulties in recogni-
tion, it was found that she had a careless, indifferent attitude toward
reading. On the first day on which the informal tests were given, she
stated frankly that she disliked reading and always had. This atti-
tude affected her accuracy in oral reading. When words were mis-
pronounced and her attention was called to the errors, she was able
to correct them without additional help. An examination of her eyes
showed that they were normal. It was concluded, therefore, that
many of her inaccuracies in the recognition of simple words were due
largely to carelessness.

A careful study was next made of her test papers in silent reading
to secure additional information concerning her habits of interpretation.
She scored lowest in the Burgess test in which success depends on
accurate reading at a fairly rapid rate. She also scored quite low in
the Courtis test in which success depends on ''grasping the essential
points in their essential relations." In informal tests of a similar type,
she read carelessly and was satisfied with incomplete interpretation.
It became evident, therefore, that she did not direct her attention
effectively to the content of what she read.

A part of her difficulty in interpretation was due to her attitude
toward the content. Evidence for this statement was secured by asking
her to reproduce what she had read when she did not know while reading
that she was going to be held for the content. In such cases her repro-
ductions were wholly inadequate and questions failed to reveal a satis-
factory mastery of the content. On the other hand, if she was informed
that a reproduction would be required, she was able to reproduce as
much as 65 per cent of what she read. Other tests showed that when
she was given specific questions to direct her thinking while reading,
she could select the most important points and could answer thought-
provoking questions, provided the selections were relatively simple.
■ If the selections were difficult, she was not able to interpret them accu-
rately because of evident difficulties in recognition.

Summary of diagnosis. — The diagnosis showed that G. S., who was
somewhat above the average for her grade in intelligence, was distinctly
retarded in oral reading and was somewhat below average in rate and
comprehension in silent reading. Her weakness in oral reading was due
to inaccurate recognition of simple words in groups, to a narrow span

176 REMEDIAL CASES IN READING

of recognition, and to very irregular eye-movements. The most signifi-
cant explanation of her difficulties in both recognition and interpreta-
tion was her lack of interest in reading and her careless, indifferent
attitude toward it. This had resulted in immature, ineffective habits of
reading and in failure to direct attention to the content of what she read.

Remedial instruction. — It was evident from the facts secured in the
diagnosis that remedial instruction should aim {a) to stimulate keen
interest in reading through the use of simple, well-selected stories, (6)
to develop a feeling of responsibility for careful, accurate work, (c) to
overcome fundamental difficulties in the mechanics of reading by
means of exercises to promote accuracy of recognition, to increase the
span of recognition, and to develop regular habits of eye-movements,
and {d) to improve the accuracy and thoroughness of her interpretation
by exercises calculated to stimulate her interest and to develop habits of
good thinking while reading.

G. S. was given individual instruction for twenty-five minutes each
day. At first the period was divided as follows: (a) oral reading of
prepared selections, {h) sight reading of simple material, and (c) drill
exercises of various types to overcome her difficultie's in the mechanics
of reading. At all times, intelligent interpretation was considered of
primary importance and was used as an aid in recognition. After she had
made considerable progress in the mechanics of reading, a large amount
of silent reading was assigned. The methods which were used in
overcoming her difficulties in both oral and silent reading are described
in the following paragraphs.

Stimulating interest in reading. — Because much of her difficulty was
due to a positive dislike for reading and to careless habits, it was necessary
to arouse an interest in reading before real progress could be made.
She was not interested in the content of simple selections which she could
read successfully and she was unwilling to read them for the purpose of
overcoming her difficulties. In fact, she resented being asked to read
selections contained in first or second readers. When other material
was assigned she was indifferent and made no attempt to read well.
In order to provide simple material and to avoid using books labeled as
first or second readers she was given selections cut from books which she
had never seen. These were mounted on cardboard to preserve them
and to make them easy to handle. The cards were then fastened
together, making a separate booklet of each story. As soon as progress
had been made with simple passages she was assigned selections in
ungraded readers. She later expressed a preference for long stories and

WEAK IN ALL PHASES OF READING 177

was given Reynard the Fox written for children by Smythe. This was
simple enough to enable her to read fluently. The fact that it was an
entire book interested her.

Suitable and attractive books were kept on the reading table and
although she looked through them daily, she did not express a desire
to take one for several weeks. While looking at them she was often
told what they were about or which ones certain children preferred.
One day she seemed especially interested in Nida's Ah the Cave Man.
The first chapter was read to her. In the next few chapters she read
the easier parts and the teacher read the remaining sections. At the
end of the period she was told she might take the book home. The
next day she announced that she had read about fifteen pages and she
seemed interested. A few minutes of each period for a few days were
devoted to discussions of the parts she liked best, to reading an occasional
chapter aloud, or to reading new chapters. She soon finished the book
and asked for another. This was the beginning of her first real interest
in reading and although her progress had been slow, it was much more
noticeable thereafter. Her brother, who was younger, became interested
in the books she took home. He could read more rapidly than she and
he aroused her curiosity by telling her what was to come. This kept
her in a state of expectancy and caused her to read more rapidly and with
keener interest. In this way she learned that reading provided very
interesting experiences and she was willing to receive help in class in
order to learn to read more difficult books for herself.

Developing a feeling of responsibility for careful work. — Satisfactory
work was commented upon and careless work was not accepted. Prog-
ress was secured by telling her that it was easy to understand a certain
story because she read it accurately or that the meaning of another
story was not clear to the listener because she left out words, repeated
frequently, and miscalled words. In such cases she was asked to re-read
a selection to secure improvement along one or more of these lines.
A record was frequently made of her errors. These facts were used in
describing to her the progress she was making. Occasionally she was
shown test sheets on which the number of errors, types of errors, and
the time it took to read each paragraph were recorded. She became
interested in her progress and made an effort to improve but failed to
develop a feeling of responsibility until near the end of the period of
instruction.

Overcoming difficulties in the mechanics of reading: (a) By developing
accurate recognition. — In order to minimize the difficulties in recognition

178 REMEDIAL CASES IN READING

and to encourage habits of fluent reading, very simple selections were
used. She was usually asked first to read short units silently with her
attention directed to the content. This enabled her to read aloud
more accurately. Since she had little difficulty in the recognition of
isolated words, the big problem was to hold her to the accurate recogni-
tion of words in sentences. If she was asked to read a selection at sight,
a suggestion as to the content of the next paragraph often resulted in
thoughtful reading and fewer errors. When she read unsatisfactorily
she was asked to re-read after definite suggestions for improvement
had been made; for example, "Make it clear how many children went
to the party," or "You left out three short words in the sentence that
changed the meaning. Read it again and put them in." Many of her
errors were due to carelessness and when she found that she would be
required to re-read paragraphs which she read carelessly, she made greater
effort to read them accurately the first time. Dialogues or plays in
which she and the teacher read different parts also brought satisfactory
results. She attempted to read as accurately and as fluently as the teacher
in order to make her part interesting. As a result she improved through
imitation and a strong incentive. She continued to study simple
material until she could read it fluently. The difficulty of the material
was then gradually increased.

(b) By developing effective eye-movements. — One of her most noticeable
difficulties in daily reading exercises was her inability to pass from the
end of one line to the beginning of the next. Her eyes either returned
to the same line or skipped a line. In order to overcome this tendency
a number of short stories were typewritten with the lines more widely
separated than in ordinary print; wide spaces were also left between
the words. After using these exercises for some time she made the return
sweep more successfully. She also had the habit of making the return
sweep before she pronounced a sufficient number of words in a given line.
She had doubtless recognized the words at the end of the line but before
she could pronounce them or because she was confused, in finding the
beginning of the next line she forgot them and had to re-read. She was
encouraged to use a marker for a short time in order to keep the next
line covered until she had almost completed reading a given line. This
prevented repetitions at the end of the line, kept her attention on a given
line, enabled her to begin the next line successfully, and resulted in
fewer errors.

(c) By increasing the span of recognition. — Paragraphs were read to
her in which phrasing was emphasized. A pencil was drawn quickly

i

WEAK IN ALL PHASES OF READING

179

under groups of words to enable her to see what words belonged together.
Short phrases which caused difficulty or which occurred frequently in
selections were printed on cards and were used in quick-perception
drills. She was given two-word phrases at first, such as he said, there
were, and one day. Later she was given three- and four-word phrases
and short sentences.

Improving interpretation.— Alter reading selections aloud she was
encouraged to discuss them and to express her opinion about the
content. She was assigned definite things to look for while reading or
was given lists of questions which directed her attention to the content
and which encouraged her to think independently about it. For
example: "Which word tells what kind of a girl she was?" "Do you
agree with what the boy said ? " "Why?" Because of her difficulties
with the mechanics of reading she was more successful in answering
judgment questions than those which called for specific facts contained
in the passages.

Results. — The instruction was continued for a period of eleven
weeks. At the end of the period she was given the tests again. The
results of these tests, the scores which she made before the training
began, and the standard scores for her grade are included in Table LVIII.

TABLE LVIII

Tests

Before Training

After Training

Standard

Fourth-Grade

Scores

The Gray Oral Reading Test

23-75
34

137
61

II

40
68

193
83-3

15-2

47
50

145
89

12.7

The Burgess SDent Reading Test

The Courtis Silent Reading Test :

Rate

Comprehension

The Monroe Silent Reading Test:

Comprehension

The scores indicate that she had made considerable progress in oral
reading but was not yet up to the standard for her grade. Her scores
in the Burgess and the Monroe tests were somewhat above the standard
scores. On the other hand, she was below standard in comprehension
in the Courtis test due no doubt to the fact that she read too rapidly,
as indicated by her high-rate score. Additional training in the mechanics
of reading and in the interpretation of passages which required clear
thinking was still necessary.

i8o

REMEDI.IL CASES IN READING

CASE V

A FIFTH-GRADE BOY WHO WAS RETARDED IN ALL PHASES OF READING BE-
CAUSE OF POOR LANGUAGE HABITS, LACK OF INTEREST IN READING,
CARELESS HABITS OF WORK, AND POOR HABITS OF THINKING WHILE
READING

Introductory statement.- — J. E. was twelve years old when the study
of his case began in October, 192 1. His parents were foreign born and
he heard little English spoken in the home. His own use of English
was very poor and he had difficulty in pronouncing words containing
th, w, and v. His teachers reported that he was below the average for
his grade in most subjects. He was not interested in his progress in
school and acknowledged that he had always disliked reading and had
read very little outside of school. He had few books and no magazines
at home, and his parents read nothing except foreign newspapers. He
went to the picture show almost every night and worked as a delivery
boy one or two evenings each week.

Preliminary diagnosis. — A. study of his case was made through the
use of five standardized tests. The names of the tests, J. E.'s scores,
and the standard fifth-grade scores appear in Table LIX.

TABLE LIX

Tests

Standard

Fifth-Grade

Scores

The Illinois Intelligence Test

The Gray Oral Reading Test

The Burgess Silent Reading Test.
The Courtis Silent Reading Test:

Rate

Comprehension

The Monroe Silent Reading Test:

Comprehension

100
48
5°

168
93

17.8

The scores indicate that he was distinctly below the average for his
grade in general intelligence and in all phases of reading. An exami-
nation of his oral-reading record showed that he read slowly and very
inaccurately. His major difficulties in the simple passages were (a)
repetitions, {b) numerous substitutions of such words as so for as and
this for //, which did not change the meaning materially, {c) occasional
substitutions of such words as home for own which showed that he did
not have the content of the passage clearly in mind, {d) slight errors
in the pronunciation of such words as makes for made, puts for put, and

WEAK IN ALL PHASES OF READING l8l

mass for masses, and (e) omissions and insertions of short words. In
more difficult passages, he was frequently unable to pronounce poly-
syllabic words.

His difficulties in recognition were doubtless sufficient to account,
in part, for his slow rate of silent reading and to interfere to some extent
with accurate interpretation. However, inasmuch as the passages used
in some of the silent-reading tests in which he scored noticeably low
were very simple, the tentative conclusion was drawn that he had
difficulties in interpretation independent of those in the mechanics of
reading. In order to determine more fully the nature and extent of
his weaknesses in both recognition and interpretation, a more detailed
study of the case was made.

Detailed diagnosis. — In the Jones Vocabulary Test, he made a score
of 95 on the sight list and 96 on the phonetic list. These scores indicated
that he recognized simple isolated words with a fair degree of accuracy.
On the other hand, several informal tests in oral reading showed that he
failed to recognize words in context which he recognized accurately
when they were isolated. It was very clear that many of these inaccu-
racies were due to carelessness. When cautioned to read carefully
he did noticeably better. When told that he had made three mistakes
in a sentence he usually re-read it correctly.

Other significant facts were revealed by informal tests. He read
very haltingly, recognizing one word at each fixation. Owing to language
difficulties he was able to recognize words individually more rapidly
than he was able to pronounce them. In his effort to read fluently,
he made many errors. For example, he reversed the order of words
or substituted words in sentences, as / shall stay here right for / shall
stay right here, or rode me on my back for rode upon my back, or This is
not a safety place for This is not a safe place. Another characteristic of
his reading was that most of his errors in recognizing words were on the
final letters of syllables. For example, he read piissy for puss, hurry
for hurrah, and come for coming. This seemed to be due to the fact
that he saw the beginning of the word and guessed at the ending.

Informal tests of comprehension showed that difficulties in recogni-
tion interfered to some extent with accurate interpretation. He was
first asked to read two simple paragraphs orally. He then read the
next two paragraphs silently. Finally two paragraphs were read to
him. His reproduction scores were 47, 38, and 61, respectively. These
and other similar results indicated clearly that when he was freed from
the obligations of recognition, he was able to understand the content

1 82 REMEDIAL CASES IN READING

of passages much better. In still other tests it was found that he was
unable to answer thought-provoking questions or to think independently
about the content of passages which he could reproduce in detail. He
was seriously handicapped in the interpretation of relatively difficult
passages by his narrow background of experience, his limited meaning
vocabulary, and his inabihty to think clearly.

Summary of diagnosis. — The diagnosis showed that J. E. was below
normal in general mental ability and was considerably retarded in all
phases of reading. His oral reading was very poor because of inadequate
language habits, inability to recognize familiar words in groups, inaccu-
racies in the recognition of unfamiliar words, and carelessness due to
lack of interest in reading. His rate of silent reading was considerably
below standard because of difficulties in recognizing words, a narrow
span of recognition, and lack of experience in reading. His interpretation
of what he read was poor because of low native intelligence, a limited
background of experience, a small meaning of vocabulary, and poor
habits of thinking while reading. His difficulties in the mechanics of
reading also accentuated his difficulties in interpretation.

Remedial instruction. — The facts brought out in the diagnosis led
to the conclusion that remedial instruction should attempt to accomplish
the following purposes: (a) to stimulate an interest in reading and a
pride in doing his best; {b) to develop greater fluency and accuracy
in the use of EngHsh; (c) to overcome difficulties in the mechanics of
reading including difficulties in recognition, a narrow span of recognition,
ineffective grouping in oral reading, and a slow rate of silent reading;
and {d) to increase his power of interpretation by directing his attention
to the content and by stimulating good habits of thinking while reading.
In order to accomplish these aims, he was given individual instruction
for twenty-five minutes each day.

Stimulating an interest in reading. — Most of the time during the first
few days was spent in informal discussions in order to study his case
more carefully and to discover his interests. He talked freely whenever
given an opportunity but his chief topics of conversation were moving-
pictures and the games which he played on the street. He said he did
not read because he failed to find interesting stories. He remarked one
day that he ''might" like to read stories about horses or dogs if he
could find them. The Ubrary was searched for suitable selections.
Several stories were read to him at first. When he became interested,
the teacher read the difficult parts to him and he was asked to read the
simpler passages. He was delighted with "A Story Told by a Donkey"

II

WEAK IN ALL PHASES OF READING 183

in the Winslon Second Reader. It was started one day near the end -of
the period and he came early the following day, found the book, and read
part of it himself. He was later given simple editions of Black Beauty
and The Dog of Flanders. The more difficult parts were read to him.
Many stories about dogs and horses which interested him were found
in readers and story-books. Other animal stories were assigned later.
He was keenly interested in them and it was some time before he wanted
to read about other things.

After he had read several stories which were suggested to him, he be-
came interested in looking through the books on the reading table and was
finally attracted by the pictures in Ab the Cave Man, especially the one
showing how Ab killed the tiger. The book was begun in class and for
the first time he expressed a desire to take a book home. He came back
the following day very much excited over the story. He finished the
book in a few days and said he would take another if it was interesting.
Robinson Crusoe was suggested. He liked this book even better and
read at home each evening. He found that the story of Robinson Crusoe
was being shown at a moving-picture theater; he went to see it, and he
sat up late to complete the book. He read Gulliver's Travels (Baldwin's
edition), other books of adventure, and short stories of various types
before the end of the training period. He occasionally remarked,
"I used to hate reading but now I like it."

Developing greater fluency and accuracy in the use of English. —
During informal conversation periods, opportunity was taken to supply
suitable words when he hesitated in talking, to pronounce words correctly
when he had difficulty, and to correct errors in sentence structure.
He was frequently asked to reproduce stories which he had read for
practice in expressing himself freely. Questions were asked to direct
his attention to the main points and to aid him in telling them in correct
sequence. He was given definite suggestions for improving these
reproductions and the teacher occasionally told the stories to him.
He was also given help in pronouncing words which caused difficulty.
The reading of a large amount of carefully selected material increased
his background of experience, enlarged his speaking and meaning
vocabularies, and supplied him with something interesting to talk about.
After considerable progress had been made, he frequently corrected his
own errors.

Overcoming difficulties in the mechanics of reading: (a) By increasing
his accuracy of recognition. — The first remedial steps aimed to direct
his attention to the content, to check his rate of reading, and to hold

l84 REMEDIAL CASES IN READING

him responsible for accurate recognition. He was assigned very simple
selections during the first few weeks. He was frequently asked to read
these selections silently. The content was then discussed in order to
insure accurate interpretation and he was finally asked to read them
aloud accurately. If he made careless errors, he was asked to re-read.
Such questions as "How far did the boy go?" or "How large was the
boy?" sometimes enabled him to correct his errors without additional
help. When he read selections at sight, questions or suggestions were
given from time to time to direct his attention to the content. In
such cases he was usually able to read with a fair degree of accuracy.

Words which caused difficulty during the reading exercises were
used in sentences at the end of the period. He frequently made substitu-
tions, such as run for ran and most for must, because he did not recognize
the details of words accurately. Such words were first used in sentences
and then printed on cards and used in quick-perception drills. Some-
times two similar words were presented together in order that he might
note their similarities and differences. Furthermore, he repeatedly
omitted or changed the ending of a word because he looked at only the
beginning. In order to overcome this difficulty, he was encouraged to
look at the entire word before attempting to pronounce it. Such endings
as /y, ivf, ing, ful, and er were also given special attention.

(b) By increasing his span of accurate recognition. — His greatest
difficulty in recognition was his inability to recognize groups of words
accurately. In addition to the help which was given to make him inde-
pendent in the recognition of individual words, quick-perception exercises
were given each day to increase his span of recognition. A record of
his errors was kept for several weeks and he became interested in decreas-
ing the number each day. He entered a contest with a boy who had the
same difficulty and although they did not work together they compared
scores daily.

(f) By developing ability in effective grouping. — During reading
exercises he was encouraged to read words in thought groups. Satisfactory
results were frequently secured by directing his attention to the content.
Phrases were occasionally underlined in sentences on the blackboard or
indicated in a reader by passing a pencil rapidly under the words which
belonged together. When he read haltingly, recognizing only one word
at a time, a few paragraphs were read to him as he followed the lines
with his eyes, and effective grouping was emphasized. After hearing
passages read, he usually re-read them better and proceeded with
greater fluency.

WEAK IN ALL PHASES OF READING

185

(d) By increasing his rate of silent reading. — As he gained in accuracy
and in span of recognition, his rate of reading increased. Near the
end of the period of training emphasis was placed on rapid silent reading.
He was encouraged to read as rapidly as he could interpret. The
silent reading which he did outside of class also gave a large amount
of practice in rapid reading.

Increasing his power of interpretation. — His attention was directed
to the content, and accurate interpretation was required at all times.
Selections were discussed at length, thought-provoking questions were
asked, and passages of a problematic nature were assigned to encourage
independent thinking. By stimulating his interest in reading, extending
his experience, and enlarging his meaning vocabulary, his power of
interpretation increased noticeably.

Results. — He was given the tests again after eleven weeks of training.
The scores which he made before training, his December scores, and the
standard scores for his grade are included in Table LX.

TABLE LX

Tests

October Scores

December Scores

Standard

Fifth-Grade

Scores

The Gray Oral Reading Test

28.75
32

99

77

II

33-75
38

114
91

133

48

The Burgess Silent Reading Test

50

The Courtis Silent Reading Test:

Rate

168

Comprehension

The Monroe Silent Reading Test:

Comprehension

93
17.8

The scores indicate that he had made progress in all phases of reading
but that he was not yet up to the standard for his grade. It was evident
that additional training in all phases of reading could be continued to
distinct advantage. Because of the large number of ineffective reading
habits which he had acquired, it was concluded that a much longer
period of remedial training than is usual would be required to develop
effective habits.

SUMMARY OF CAUSES

Difficulties in practically all phases of reading are due to a wide
variety of causes. Those which were of most significance in the cases
reported in this chapter may be summarized briefly as follows: (a) low
native intelligence, inadequate language habits, and lack of general
experience; (b) little or no interest in reading, a careless, indifferent

l86 REMEDL^L CASES IN READING

attitude toward school work, and ineffective attention and application;
(c) inadequate attention to the content, difficulties in the mechanics of
reading, ineffective rates of reading, an inadequate meaning vocabulary,
failure to think independently about the content, and inability to
picture unfamiliar situations; (d) poor home environment, distracting
social influences, and inadequate parental supervision; and (e) inadequate
or inappropriate reading materials and poor instruction. The list is a
relatively long one and includes many of the causes mentioned in earlier
chapters. It is apparent that the teacher who attempts to determine
the causes of failure in an individual case must canvass various possible
explanations systematically before reaching final conclusions and
planning remedial instruction.

Conclusions concerning remedial instruction. — The following specific
suggestions concerning remedial instruction are based on the study of
cases reported in this chapter, (i) Individual instruction is preferable.

(2) The confidence and co-operation of the pupil must be secured.

(3) Keen interest must be aroused in reading through the use of material
directly related to the pupil's interests. (4) The first selections must
be simple enough to enable the pupil to read with a fair degree of success.
(5) Specific problems should be assigned to direct his attention to the
important points. (6) These problems should increase in difficulty as
his power of interpretation develops. (7) The problems which are
assigned must vary in order to include all important phases of inter-
pretation. (8) In connection with training in interpretation, he must
be given exercises to promote rapid and accurate recognition of individual
words and words in groups. (9) Drill exercises to increase his span of
recognition and to establish regular eye-movements should also be
given. (10) Exercises must be included to assist the pupil in reading
rapidly as well as thoughtfully. (11) As soon as the pupil has made
some progress in accurate interpretation and in the mechanics of reading,
he should be assigned types of exercises which require independent think-
ing. (12) He should also be encouraged to read as much as possible
outside of class in order to secure a large amount of practice in reading
which is necessary in estabhshing fluent habits. (13) Remedial instruc-
tion should not be discontinued until pupils have substituted good habits
for poor ones in all phases of reading and can read content subjects
rapidly, intelligently, and independently.

Remedial instruction for pupils who are weak in most phases of
reading must be both comprehensive and specific. A well-balanced
program should be adopted which provides adequate training in each

WEAK IN ALL PHASES OF READING 187

phase in which weakness is discovered. As a rule, training should be
carried on simultaneously along all lines, although major emphasis
may be placed at any time on a given phase in which serious difficulty
is encountered. As training continues, the most important need of a
pupil may change and the emphasis in instruction must be shifted. For
example, a pupil who is weak in all phases of reading may need first of
all exercises which direct his attention to the content in order to aid him
in both interpretation and recognition. As he overcomes his difficulties
in the interpretation of simple passages, it may be necessary to emphasize
in turn each of the following : the interpretation of passages of a problem-
atic type, increasing his rate of silent reading, or developing independ-
ence in the recognition of polysyllabic words. The remedial teacher
must study the pupil's needs continuously, and must supplement a
well-balanced program of reading instruction with specific emphasis
from time to time on particular phases of reading which require imme-
diate attention.

CHAPTER IX

DIAGNOSTIC AND REMEDIAL STUDIES IN A CITY SCHOOL SYSTEM

The purpose of this chapter is to describe briefly the diagnostic and
remedial studies which were made by the supervisors and teachers of
Toledo, Ohio. Discussions of the methods which were used and of the
results which were secured should prove of value to superintendents,
principals, supervisors, and teachers who plan to provide appropriate
instruction for pupils who encounter serious difficulties in reading. The
plan which was adopted by the supervisors of Toledo was determined by
the conditions which existed in the autumn of 192 1 in the schools of that
city. Many schools which undertake diagnostic and remedial work will
doubtless find it necessary to depart widely from the Toledo plan. As
other methods of providing for remedial cases are worked out, they
should be published in order that each school officer may profit by the
experiences of those who have engaged in this type of work.

ORGANIZATION OF DIAGNOSTIC WORK IN TOLEDO

In the autumn of 192 1, Superintendent Charles S. Meek interested
the teachers under his supervision in making a series of diagnostic and
remedial studies in reading. He was assisted in this enterprise by
Miss Estaline Wilson, assistant superintendent of schools, Miss Florence
E. Hawkins, primary supervisor, and Miss Flora Nettleman, inter-
mediate grade supervisor. Ten schools were selected in which to begin
remedial instruction. These schools were chosen because each of them
had in its organization a special teacher who gave individual help to
pupils who encountered serious difficulties in any of the school subjects.
The principal of each school was asked to select three pupils who were
seriously retarded in reading. The thirty pupils selected in this way
were studied very carefully during the month of December for the
purpose of determining the nature of their difficulties.

The first step in the diagnosis was to secure information concerning
each pupil with respect to the following: home conditions, personal
characteristics, school history, progress in various school subjects,
and special difficulties in reading. In this connection, the classroom
teachers used the personal history blanks which were described in
chapter iii. Numerous items of information were secured which proved

188

REMEDL\L STUDIES IN A CITY SCHOOL SYSTEM 189

to be of great value in explaining the cause of failure in many cases.
Inasmuch as mental tests had been given a short time before the diag-
nostic studies began, information concerning the general intelligence
of each pupil was secured from the record sheets that were on file.

The testing which formed a very important step in the diagnosis
was carried on during the week of December 12. The names of the
tests that were used follow: the Gray Oral Reading Test ; the Haggerty
Reading Examination, Sigma I; the Courtis Silent Reading Test, No. 2;
the Thorndike-McCall Silent Reading Test; the Burgess Silent Reading
Test; Word Recognition Test A; Word Element Test A; and the short-
exposure tests that were described in chapter iii.

The tests were given by Miss Wilson, Miss Hawkins, Miss Nettleman,
Mrs. William S. Gray, and the writer. They were assisted in each
school by the special teacher who was to give the remedial instruction.
A morning or an afternoon was devoted to the study of the pupils of
each school. As far as was possible, principles determining the valid
administration of tests were observed. In several schools as many as
ten pupils in addition to the three special cases were tested in order to
secure comparative data. As far as time permitted, summaries of the
diagnoses were prepared and recommendations for remedial treatment
were outlined before leaving a building. In several cases it was neces-
sary to postpone the preparation of the reports until the close of the
day. The summary of the diagnosis and the recommendations con-
cerning remedial instruction which were included in one report follow:

This is the case of a boy who is somewhat retarded in comprehension, who
makes numerous minor errors in oral reading, and who encounters difficulty
in the accurate recognition of polysyllabic words. He reads simple material
very rapidly when he is not held for the content. When asked to interpret
what he reads, he reads much more slowly. Although he has a fairly wide
span of recognition, he does not recognize details accurately.

It is recommended that two weeks be spent in oral reading of third-grade
material for the purpose of eliminating minor errors and careless mistakes.
Precede the oral reading by silent study and spirited discussions of the content.
In order to improve the accuracy of his reading and the efifectiveness of his
expression read to him frequently.

As soon as he gains confidence, introduce more difficult selections. These
should be studied silently for their content. Assign problems for him to
solve which wUl require a very careful reading of the passages. The content
should be discussed thoroughly to insure a mastery of the essential points.
When word difficulties are encountered teach him to secure the meaning and
prommciation from a study of the context. Considerable attention should

I go REMEDIAL CASES IN READING

be given to the analysis of polysyllabic words. Plan drill exercises on the
words which cause difficulty. Teach the principles of syllabication and accent
through a study of examples.

Before asking him to read a difficult selection orally, give him an oppor-
tunity to practice reading it by himself. This will enable him to improve his
grouping of words and the quality of his expression. It will be very helpful
to read to him and with him by turns. Encourage him whenever possible.
Provide audience situations for him.

Organize phrase drills to increase his span of accurate recognition. Begin
with short phrases at first and increase their length as rapidly as progress is
evidenced.

Prepare short exercises about fifty words in length for use in increasing
his ability to interpret what he reads. Increase the length and difficulty of
the passages as rapidly as progress is noted.

Conduct timed reading exercises frequently to increase his rate of accurate
silent reading. In all such exercises attention should be centered on the
content.

ORGANIZATION OF REMEDIAL INSTRUCIION

During the week in which the tests were given, a series of conferences
were held with the teachers of Toledo concerning problems of reading
instruction. These meetings were attended by the special teachers
who were to give remedial instruction. In addition, a special conference
was held with the supervisors and special teachers in which were dis-
cussed at length the problems of teaching pupils who are retarded in
reading. Types of remedial cases were described and appropriate
methods and devices of teaching them were considered. Before the
close of the conference several typewritten sheets of directions and
suggestions were distributed. Furthermore, the special teachers were
supplied with reading tests of comparable difl&culty which could be used
at intervals of two weeks during the training period in determining the
progress pupils were making.

Remedial instruction began the first week in January, 1922, and
continued for nine weeks. During this time the special teachers and
the supervisors met frequently to discuss the problems which confronted
them and to pool their experiences. The following report was received
concerning one of the meetings: "Each teacher discussed one of her
cases. She gave the child's history, told what had been learned in the
diagnosis, and outlined the recommendations for remedial treatment.
She also described the steps which she had taken in teaching the pupil.
The case was then discussed by the special teachers; questions were
asked, and suggestions were offered by the supervisors and teachers."

REMEDIAL STUDIES IN A CITY SCHOOL SYSTEM 191

The special teachers indicated in various ways that these conferences
were exceedingly profitable.

Reports were prepared every two weeks by the special teachers and
forwarded to the writer. They contained descriptions of the methods
used by the teachers in teaching each of the remedial cases which had
been assigned to them. In addition, the reports contained statements
concerning the progress of the pupils and questions in regard to diffi-
culties which the pupils encountered. As rapidly as the reports were
received, criticisms and suggestions were prepared and returned to
the teachers. These reports proved to be very helpful because they
made it necessary for each teacher to make careful studies of the most
significant difficulties encountered by individual pupils and the probable
efifectiveness of the methods which were used.

Results of remedial instruction. — Nine weeks after the remedial
instruction began, check tests were given by Miss Wilson, Miss Hawkins,
Miss Nettleman, and Miss Hinman, one of the special teachers. Of
the thirty pupils who were originally selected, twenty-six had received
remedial instruction throughout most of the training period. The
check tests given to these pupils revealed some very interesting and
significant results. The oral-reading tests showed that each pupil had
made distinct progress. The silent-reading tests revealed satisfactory
progress in many cases and unsatisfactory results in other cases. Inas-
much as this was the first group which had been given remedial instruc-
tion, it was natural to expect that the results would not be entirely
satisfactory in every case. In order to overcome difficulties which some
pupils encountered at the end of the training period, remedial instruction
was continued in several cases.

It will not be possible to present the results for each of the twenty-
six cases or to describe at length the methods which were used. The
plan has been adopted, therefore, of making a brief s immary of one
case taught by each of the special teachers who were able to prepare
final reports. Each grade from the second to the seventh inclusive is
represented among the cases reported. The scores which were made
at the beginning and at the end of the training period appear in
Table LXI. The records of the pupils are arranged in the order in
which the cases will be discussed in the following section of the chapter.
A comparison of the scores shows clearly that each pupil made very
satisfactory progress in most of the phases of reading which were tested.
Many of the children were still considerably retarded in one or more
respects when the March tests were given. In several cases, individual

192

REMEDIAL CASES IN READING

instruction was continued for the purpose of eliminating errors and diflS-
culties which the pupils encountered at that time.

TABLE LXI

School

w

D
<
as
O

Tests

Gray's Oral

Burgess

Courtis

Pupil

Rate

Questions

and
Answers

Index

Thorndike-
McCaU

Dec.

Mar.

Dec.

Mar.

Dec.

Mar.

Dec.

Mar.

Dec.

Mar.

Dec.

Mar.

A.H....
M. M...
A. L....
N. W...
T. C...
A. F....
C. W...
P. M. ..

Spring

Newton

Fulton

Cherry

Auburndale

Gunckel

Indiana

Stickney

II

III

IV

V

VI

VI

VII

VII

o
38
30
31
35
18
20
34

28
43
45
34
45
29
54
53

0
26
20

0
21
14
32

26
20
26
26
26
26
44

108
97
77
129
117
220

162
104
183
119
89
114
195

15
0
10
23
20
30
44

18
19
29

25

26
33

45

85
0
57
95
82
96
93

37
64
74
91
82
90
95

29. 5

34
38

44

51
54

Reports of individual cases. — The eight cases which are reported do
not represent a wide variety of different types. This is due to the fact
that they were selected by the teachers and principals because they
encountered serious difhculties in reading. As a rule such pupils are
generally weak in both oral and silent reading. There are several
important differences in the cases described which will be discussed in
connection with the individual reports. A second explanation which
should be made is that it was impossible because of the limitations of
space to include all of the methods and devices used by each teacher.
The plan was adopted, therefore, of presenting a few examples from
each report. These will supply ample evidence of the fact that a large
amount of very valuable material can be created in a school system if the
necessary energy is provided for such work.

A. H.: A SECOND-GRADE BOY WHO ENCOUNTERED UNUSUAL DIFFICULTIES
IN LEARNING TO READ

A. H. was unable to score in any of the reading tests. He failed to
pronounce such words as boy, dog, and ran, and was unable to determine
their pronunciation through word analysis. The study which was made
of his case showed that he encountered serious difficulties in associating
printed or written symbols with their meaning and pronunciation.
Such cases are found in practically all schools. Their inability is known
technically as dyslexia when it is due to failure of certain areas of the

REMEDIAL STUDIES IN A CITY SCHOOL SYSTEM 193

brain to develop. There is no more baffiing type of remedial case to
instruct satisfactorily than pupils who encounter unusual difficulties in
learning to read. The fact that Miss Latha Sipe, Spring School, secured
approximately a year's progress in oral reading in nine weeks is very
significant. The brief report which follows emphasizes the fact that
teachers should study the needs and characteristics of remedial cases
continuously, should plan reading exercises intelligently, and should
teach each important habit and association deliberately and thoroughly.

Remedial instruction was organized to accomplish four distinct purposes:
(0) to arouse interest in reading; (b) to develop independence in word recogni-
tion; (c) to secure effective grouping of words; and (d) to derive meaning
and pronunciation from the context.

Thirty minutes were used each day for individual instruction. The
first week was devoted to oral reading in order to develop interest in the reading
of simple interesting selections. Beginning with the second week, the reading
period was used for two types of instruction: (a) word analysis and flash-card
exercises and (b) oral reading for content. In addition to these exercises, at
least thirty minutes each day were spent in supplementary outside reading.

Instruction in word analysis was based on the words which caused difficulty.
Minor errors, such as house for home and thai for what, were printed on cards
and presented in flash-card exercises. As rapidly as these words were mastered,
they were removed from the pack of cards. Systematic instruction in phonics
was given each day. It included drill on short vowels, long vowels, digraphs,
family endings, initial consonants, and blends. Suffixes were also studied.

The last twenty minutes each day were used in reading simple, interesting
stories. Mother Goose stories were read first. The teacher read or told a
part of them to him. When he found that he was able to read the more familiar
ones, he wanted to learn to read others. He watched the words closely as the
teacher read and then took his book home and read the stories to himself
several times. During the reading period, he was asked questions that helped
him to anticipate what was coming. After discussing the answers to these
questions, he was able to read much better. The Mother Goose stories
were followed by stories such as "The Wee Wee Woman" and "The Old
Woman and Her Pig." In a short time he became quite fluent in reading this
type of material. After three weeks, he was able to read simple primer material
silently.

The teacher read to him and with him in order to get good models of
grouping and expression before him. At the end of four weeks, marked
improvement was noted. His expression was better andj he had developed
ability in attacking new words and pronouncing them independently.

The discussion of a story insured a thoughtful reading attitude. This
not only helped him to secure the meaning of passages but developed a desire

194 REMEDIAL CASES IN READING

to read books. During the training period, he read fifteen supplementary
reading books.

At the end of six weeks, he was transferred from a slow second-grade
class to a more advanced section. He was the poorest member of the slow
section when the remedial work began. Two weeks after his promotion he
was ranked as "medium" in the new section.

M. M. : A TfflRD-GRADE BOY WHO WAS RETARDED MORE THAN A YEAR IN

ALL PHASES OF READING AND WHO REVEALED ALL THE

CHARACTERISTICS OF A WORD-READER

The tests showed that M. M. was approximately equal to a begin-
ning second-grade pupil in both recognition and interpretation. The
most characteristic weakness which was revealed in his reading was the
fact that he recognized words individually and failed to group them
together in thought units. This interfered seriously with fluent oral
reading and intelligent silent reading. As far as could be determined,
this weakness was due to inability to recognize words rapidly and
accurately and to a narrow span of recognition. Pupils who encounter
similar difl&culties are found in large numbers in every school system.
It is needless to say that they present serious problems to classroom
teachers. The report which follows describes the methods which Miss
Marshall, Newton School, used in improving M. M.'s habits in three
important phases. The specific exercises which are described were
supplemented by much oral and silent reading for content with the
result that distinct progress in most phases of reading was noted by the
end of the training period.

The remedial work was organized with the following objectives in mind:
(a) to develop independence in word recognition, (b) to develop the habit of
recognizing words in thought units, and (c) to build up an adequate reading
vocabulary.

Inasmuch as remedial instruction was given by the regular classroom
teacher, it was necessary that M. M. shovdd have clearly in mind the character
of his difficulties. Consequently, nearly one-half of the time during the first
month was devoted to a study of his difficulties and to appropriate methods
of overcoming them.

He was handicapped in the beginning by the habit of guessing. The first
step in remedying this diificulty was to require him to copy each word which
caused difficulty. Inasmuch as he had previously received training in word
analysis, the close attention to the details of words which was required in
copying them led to their accurate recognition. The following series of
suggestions was prepared to aid him in attacking new words: "Divide the
word into syllables. Try to find famihar words among them. Sound each

REMEDL\L STUDIES IN A CITY SCHOOL SYSTEM 195

syllable. What is the word?" He was given opportunity to apply these
suggestions to two or three words each day. He made noticeable progress in
the independent recognition of words after he learned that there must be a
vowel in each syllable.

When remedial instruction began, M. M. was a word-reader. This was
due to the fact that he encoimtered too many difficulties in third-grade reading
material. As a first step in the development of the habit of recognizing words
in thought units very simple selections were chosen. These were studied and
carefully discussed before they were read aloud. He was frequently asked to
underline thought units while studying a selection. This device lead to a
better grasp of the thought and to more effective oral reading.

His vocabvdary was limited at the beginning of the training period to
words ordinarily found in first readers. A standard second reader was chosen
as a guide in building up his vocabulary. It was hoped that the entire book
could be reviewed in a term. Hence, it was divided into twelve divisions for
weekly assignments. The work for each week was prepared at home. He
made a list of aU words which he did not know. These were printed on cards
and made into a book. He reviewed the words in the book each day. As
soon as he had learned to pronounce a word without error, it was removed
from the book. These cards were kept on file and used in reviews from time to
time. It is hoped that the same method can be applied to another standard
second reader, thus insuring a relatively broad second-grade vocabulary.

A. L. : A FOURTH-GRADE GIRL WTIO WAS WEAK IN ALL PHASES OF READING,

BUT WHO ENCOUNTERED THE MOST SERIOUS DIFFICULTY

IN INTERPRETATION

When A. L was examined, it was found that she was retarded in all
phases of reading and that she encountered serious difficulty in inter-
preting what she read. As a result, she was failing in all content subjects
which required independent study. Her case is not unlike that of
thousands of boys and girls who are promoted to the fourth grade before
they have formed the fundamental habits and associations on which
fluent, intelligent reading depend. Before such pupils are able to
make satisfactory progress, they need help of a type which is not ordi-
narily provided in group instruction. The secret of success in teaching
such pupils is the organization of exercises that emphasize those phases
of reading in which the most serious difficulties are encountered. The
following report describes some of the methods which were used by
Miss Laura Keplinger, Fulton School, in the case of A. L.

Each lesson which was given during the training period included three
distinct features: (a) phonetics and word recognition, (b) oral reading for
quality and content, and (c) silent reading for content.

196 REMEDIAL CASES IN READING

I

The remedial period included thirty minutes of work each day. The
first few minutes of each period were used for drill exercises in phonetics and
word analysis. The remainder of the period was devoted to oral and silent
reading for content. Throughout the entire training period, A. L. spent much
time in supplementary outside reading.

At the beginning of the training period, use was made of a chart of phono- ^

grams. A list of words was written on the board each day which contained -

the phonograms that had been studied. This gave her practice in recognizing
words that contained famihar elements. Flash-card exercises, based on
words that caused difiiculty during the reading period, were conducted each |

day. Drill upon words was discontinued as soon as they were mastered. |

Thirty Fables Retold were used in improving the quahty of her oral reading.
These stories are short, simple, and very interesting. They are printed on
separate cards with a picture at the beginning of each story and with factual
and thought-provoking questions at the end. When use was made of these
stories, the pictures were discussed first to arouse interest. The stories
were then read orally and the answers to the questions discussed. A record
was kept of the errors which she made during a reading lesson. These and
other words containing the same phonetic elements were drilled upon for a
few minutes each day.

In order to stimulate thoughtful silent reading for content, supplementary
reading exercises were assigned each day. On the following day, she was
asked to reproduce what she had read or to answer questions based on the
content. It was found that at home A. L. had no books suited to her limited
reading vocabulary. She was, therefore, furnished with a list of simple,
interesting stories and was encouraged to take home hbrary books to read.
This plan did a great deal toward establishing thoughtful reading habits.

Paragraphs were cut from second- and third-grade readers. These were
read silently for the purpose of securing a clear grasp of their meaning. After
a paragraph had been read, a reproduction was required and several questions
similar to the following were asked: " What kind of morning was it ? How did
the birds show their joy ?"

Simple directions were printed on cards as an additional means of training
her to grasp the content. The following examples are typical of many others
which were used: " Get a piece of chalk and put it on my desk." " Take hold
of your left elbow with your right hand."

N. W.: A FIFTH-GRADE BOY WHO HAD SERIOUS DIFFICULTY IN RECOG-
NITION WTIICH RESULTED IN INACCURATE ORAL READING
AND INADEQUATE INTERPRETATION

Pupils are frequently discovered who are weak in most phases of
reading because of unusual difficulties of a specific type. In the case
of N. W. there was evidence that he had trouble with his eves \vhich

REMEDIAL STUDIES IN A CITY SCHOOL SYSTEM 197

resulted in inaccuracies in recognition. It was very difficult to persuade
his parents to have his eyes examined, and consequently the training
period was at an end before a thorough examination was made. In
providing remedial instruction, Miss Harriet L. Hinman, Cherry School,
faced two very important problems, namely, to train him to recognize
the details of a printed line more accurately and to interpret the content
more intelligently. The results were not entirely satisfactory. It should
be remembered, however, that N. W. had complained of eye trouble for
three years. His case emphasizes the fact that school ofl&cers should
provide means of determining physical or organic defects which handi-
cap progress and should be authorized to take the necessary corrective
steps.

Remedial instruction was organized along the following lines: (a) flash-
card exercises to develop speed and accuracy in recognition; (b) systematic
training in phonetics and word analysis; (c) sight oral reading to develop
fluency in reading; and (d) silent-reading exercises to develop ability to
interpret the content of passages accurately.

Before beginning remedial work, the conclusions reached in the diagnosis
were discussed with N. W. in order that he might understand what his diffi-
culties were. This proved to be a very effective step, inasmuch as it enabled
him to co-operate intelligently in securing improvement. During the first
four weeks, from fifteen to twenty minutes a day were used for sight oral
reading of second-grade selections. The remainder of the half-hour each
day was devoted to flash-card exercises and phonetic driUs. After four weeks
of remedial instruction, silent reading of simple selections was introduced and
systematic study of prefixes, suffixes, and polysyllabic words was begim.

The words which caused difficulty in oral reading were printed on flash
cards. His habit of speUing each word which was not recognized instantly
was discussed with him. As soon as he became conscious of this habit, he
endeavored to overcome it with the result that there was a noticeable increase
in his rate of reading. As an additional help in overcoming difficulties in
recognition, he was given frequent exercises in the analysis of both short and
long words.

Selections from a second reader were used for several weeks in oral-reading
exercises. As he read each paragraph, his errors were recorded. He became
interested in trying to reduce the number of errors which he made. Inasmuch
as he corrected himself frequently while reading, his rate was very slow. In
order to secure more fluent reading, he read a paragraph each day while a
record was made of the time required, and the niunber of errors. He was
interested in improving his record from day to day and consequently gave
undivided attention to his reading with the result that many of his inaccura-
cies were eliminated.

igS REMEDIAL CASES IN READING

Special exercises were prepared to stimulate intelligent silent reading.
When he failed to interpret the content accurately, he was asked to read the
passages orally. The cause of failure could usually be attributed to the non-
recognition of important words. Paragraphs cut from geographies, magazines,
and readers were mounted on cards. Questions or directions such as the
following were written on the backs of the cards or below the paragraphs:
(a) information questions that could be answered in the words of the paragraph ;
(ft) ^ thought-provoking questions that could not be answered in the words of
the paragraph; (c) requests to reproduce passages verbally or to write on
the blackboard.

T. C: A SIXTH-GRADE BOY WHO WAS WEAK IN ORAL READING, RATE
OF SILENT READING, AND INTERPERTATION

In contrast with the case of N. W., pupils are frequently found in
the fifth and sixth grades who experience fundamental difficulties in
several phases of reading. This was true in the case of T. C. As a
result, a comprehensive program of remedial instruction was necessary
in order to enable him to overcome his most important weakness.
The devices which are suggested by Miss June Mapes, Auburndale
School, are very suggestive.

Remedial work was organized to accomplish the following purposes: (a) to
develop independence in the recognition of words, (b) to increase his span
of recognition, (c) to increase fluency and more effective grouping in oral
reading, and (d) to increase his ability to interpret what he read.

Library books were provided as a means of arousing interest in reading.
Inasmuch as T. C. had no preferences, Boy Scout stories were tried. He liked
them so much that he went to the library for others. The American Boy, the
Youtii's Companion, and Western stories proved to be most interesting. He
read each evening at home, frequently to his mother. The reading experience
which he secured in this way stimulated a keen interest in reading and he
soon talked quite freely about the stories which he read.

Remedial work was first attempted by using simple stories of second-grade
difficulty. Flash-card exercises based on the words which caused difficulty
were used for five or six minutes each day during the first four weeks. Begin-
ning with the fifth week, five minutes each day were devoted to systematic
work in word analysis. Phrase drills were given three or four minutes a day
during the entire training period. During the last two weeks, timed silent-
reading exercises were assigned. Approximately twenty minutes each day were
spent in oral or silent reading. In these exercises, attention was directed
primarily to the content.

After phonetics had been systematically reviewed, word analysis and word
building were stressed. Words of two or more syllables which caused difficulty

REMEDIAL STUDIES IN A CITY SCHOOL SYSTEM 199

were written on the blackboard. Their prefixes, stems, and suffixes were
studied carefully.

In order to increase the span of recognition, lists of words, phrases, and
short sentences were typewritten and presented in short-exposure exercises.
The words were triple spaced and arranged in columns of fifteen. A piece
of cardboard was used in exposing the words in which an opening, four inches
long and three-fourths of an inch wide, had been cut. This made it possible
to see only one word or phrase at a time as the opening moved from the top
to the bottom of the paper. This was found to be a very successful device.

In order to improve his interpretation of what he read, the following
devices were used: (i) He was asked questions about incidents in the story
which related to some of his experiences. (2) Questions were written on the
blackboard to guide him in the preparation of a lesson. (3) Informational
paragraphs were cut from geographies and histories. These paragraphs were
read silently in order to find the main idea or the topic sentence. (4) Stories
were cut into paragraphs. He was then asked to read the paragraphs and to
arrange them in proper sequence. This required a careful, dehberate study
of the various paragraphs. (5) Lessons in "quick understanding" taken from
the Lewis mid Roland Silent Readers were used frequently. An example follows :

"The river in front of my house is flowing with ice in winter, but in the
summer it flows freely by. As I look out of my window, I see the boys walking
on the river.

"If it is summer, draw a tree on the first line. If it is winter, write the
word ice there."

A. F.: A SIXTH-GRADE BOY WHO WAS WEAK IN ALL PHASES OF READING
AND, CONSEQUENTLY, WAS UNABLE TO PREPARE ASSIGN-
MENTS IN CONTENT SUBJECTS

The case of A. F. is similar to that of T. C. A description of his
case has been included because it emphasizes two very important points
concerning remedial instruction for pupils who are retarded in all
phases of reading: (a) the exercises which are used must be planned to
meet the specific needs of pupils and {h) somewhat different exercises
may be used by teachers in securing similar results. The report which
follows describes the methods which were used by Miss Irene O'Brien,
Gunckel School, in teaching A. F.

'Remedial work was organized along the following lines: (a) careful inspec-
tion of words, {b) training in word recognition, (c) training in phrase recog-
nition, and {d) exercises to promote habits of fluent, intelligent silent reading.

The first step was to arouse an interest in reading. Thirty minutes were
spent each day for two weeks in reading simple interesting stories. Spirited
discussions accompanied and followed the reading of each story. As soon as

200 REMEDIAL CASES IX READING

interest had been aroused in a story, it was suggested that he take the story
home and finish it. The next day, questions were asked concerning the content
of the story or he was asked to reproduce what he had read. These methods
insured a large amount of reading, with attention directed to the content.

In order to insure a careful inspection of words, a Ust of errors was made as
he read. He was then informed concerning the number and kinds of errors
which he made. Frequently a paragraph was read to him aloud as he had
read it silently. He was asked to note the errors and to make corrections.
He then re-read the paragraph himself, usually with no errors. This device
ed him to realize how many errors he made. Within a very short time he
was making a conscious effort to avoid errors and to correct those which he
made.

In order to develop independence in word recognition, considerable traim'ng
in phonetics and word analysis was given. After the more important phonetic
elements had been studied, ten phonetic rules were given to him on as many
sheets of paper and he was asked to classify the words which caused him
difficulty. Words similar in form, which he frequently mispronounced, were
used in flash-card exercises. He frequently confused the tenses of verbs.
Drill exercises including sentences similar to the following were prepared:

Today he says. Yesterday he said.

Today he asks. Yesterday he asked.

Flash-card exercises based on phrases and short sentences which did not
cause difficulty were planned to increase his span of recognition. These
phrases were organized into ten books, each book containing phrases of a similar
type. As the phrases of a book were flashed, a record was kept of the number
of errors. Drill was continued until all the phrases of a book were recognized
twice on the same day. Another book was then begun. The books which
had been completed were reviewed frequently.

In order to increase his rate of reading, he was given frequent timed reading
exercises based on simple selections. At times he was required to reproduce
what he had read. At other times, he answered questions concerning the
content of selections. Occasionally he wrote the answers to a series of ques-
tions. He frequently read paragraphs in his geography in order to determine
answers to specific questions.

C. W.: A SEVENTH-GRADE BOY OF FOREIGN PARENTS WHO WAS SERIOUSLY
RETARDED IN READING

Many pupils fail in reading because they are not sufficiently familiar
with the vocabularies in readers, because they have not learned to
speak English sentences fluently, or because the experiences described
in readers are new and unfamiliar to them. By the time such pupils
reach the seventh grade, they are so seriously retarded that they become

STATE TEACHEPi- COL-.TG..
SANTA BARBARA, CALIFORNIA

REMEDIAL STUDIES IN A CITY SCHOOL SYSTEM 201

discouraged and frequently discontinue school work altogether. Prac-
tically the only method of handling such cases is to give them a new
start in reading through individual instruction. In the report which
follows, Miss Dorothea Klag, Indiana School, describes the methods
which she used in teaching C. W. Her discussion of the case is valu-
able because it reveals several types of problems which a remedial
teacher encounters in the case of pupils retarded in reading because of
language handicaps.

Remedial instruction was organized to accomplish the following piirposes:
{a) to overcome foreign accent in words containing tk which he pronounced as d,
(b) to develop independence in the recognition of unfamiliar words rather
than to make an inarticulate attempt at their prommciation, (c) to reduce his
rate of oral reading, (d) to increase his rate of silent reading, and (e) to
develop power of interpretation.

When remedial instruction began, he was stubborn, morose, indifferent,
and stoical. The first problem, therefore, was to gain his confidence. He
was invited to help prepare drill exercises by pasting words, phrases, sentences,
paragraphs, and stories on cards. After several days had been spent in this
way, he became more friendly, spoke more frequently, and began to participate
in the training exercises more satisfactorily.

The instruction which he received was given in three ten-minute periods
each day. The first was used for phonetic analysis and word building. The
second was for practice in oral reading with attention directed to the content.
The third was for silent reading and the thoughtful interpretation of what he
read.

The first drill exercises were organized to secure the rapid recognition of
words. In this connection, "books" of famiUar words were made. These books
consisted of cards which were two inches wide and six inches long. Each
card had one word printed on it and all the words of a given family formed a
book. For example, the following words were in one book: trail, fail, nail,
pail, mail, and tail. The words were presented by exposing them rapidly.
Those which were correctly pronounced were removed from the book; those
which were mispronounced were used in additional drill exercises.

Words containing th and those which were pronounced with a foreign
accent were printed on cards. These words were pronounced for him and
then he repeated them frequently untU he was able to pronounce them cor-
rectly.

Various methods were used for directing his attention to the content of
passages, (i) A reproduction of the content was required. (3) Questions
were written on the blackboard or on sheets of paper. These questions were
studied before a selection was read. (3) Questions were written at the end of
paragraphs which had been pasted on cards. (4) Questions were asked

202 REMEDIAL CASES IN READING

rapidly by the teacher concerning the content of what had been read. (5) A
key word was selected. He was asked to reproduce the statements made in
the selection relating to the idea or thing represented by the key word. If he
failed to give a satisfactory report, the passages were re-read.

P. M.: A SEVENTH-GRADE BOY WHO WAS SOMEWHAT RETARDED IN MOST
PHASES OF READING, BUT NOT SERIOUSLY RETARDED
IN ANY ONE PHASE

Many pupils reach the seventh grade who are somewhat retarded in
most phases of reading and are consequently at a disadvantage in all
subjects which require either oral or silent reading. A significant
problem which confronts a remedial teacher in such cases is the selection
of a limited number of problems for emphasis. This can be done only
after a very careful study has been made of the characteristic errors and
difficulties encountered by a pupil. In the report which follows, Miss
Hattie Marker, Stickney School, points out the specific purposes of
remedial instruction in the case of P. M. As far as space permits
descriptions of the methods which she used are also included.

Remedial instruction was organized to accomplish the following purposes:
(o) to correct minor errors, such as omissions, substitutions, and careless
mistakes; (b) to secure effective grouping of words in oral reading; (c) to
develop power in analyzing polysyllabic words for their meaning and pro-
nunciation; and (d) to increase rate and comprehension in silent reading.

The first problem was to gain the pupil's confidence and to stimulate a
desire to read well. This was done through reading simple, interesting selec-
tions either orally or silently and through discussing their content. Phonetics
and diacritical marks were reviewed in order to facfiitate the use of the dic-
tionary. About five minutes a day for two weeks were used for this purpose.
The analysis of polysyllabic words was next introduced. The words which
caused difiiculty were used in flash-card exercises. The remainder of the
thirty minutes was used for oral and silent reading with emphasis primarily
on the content.

To secure better grouping of words and the eUmination of minor errors,
third-grade selections were read for two weeks in three different ways: (a) the
teacher read to the pupil to give him good models of expression; (b) the teacher
and the pupil read in turn; and (c) the pupil read to the teacher or to a group.

During the third week, special attention was given to the elimination of
such errors as omissions of endings and small words, substitutions, and inser-
tions.

When fourth-grade selections were introduced, a study of polysyllabic
words was begun. Stems, pretLxes, and sufiixes were emphasized and their
meanings were carefully studied.

REMEDIAL STUDIES IN A CITY SCHOOL SYSTEM 203

Short-exposure exercises which included words, phrases, clauses, and short
sentences were given to increase his span of recognition. These were cut
from readers which were not in use and were pasted on cards.

The selections which were used in the reading exercises were chosen from
textbooks, supplementary readers, newspapers, magazines, and the Lewis
and Rowland Silent Readers. The aim in selecting material was to secure
relatively simple and very interesting selections. P. M. enjoyed many things
better than reading outside of school hours, but would read mystery stories.
He was encouraged to read stories selected from a list which was suppUed to
him. While reading this type of material he learned the value of a newspaper
as a source of interesting information. He soon began to contribute informa-
tion which he secured from newspapers.

In order to give training in accurate interpretation, paragraphs not
exceeding fifty words in length were pasted on cards. He was asked to repro-
duce them or to answer questions about their content. Very simple passages
were used at first to develop confidence. Later more difiicult paragraphs
were assigned. He was informed concerning his progress and he became inter-
ested in competing with his own record.

CONCLUSIONS

The reports which have been included m this chapter represent only
a limited number of t>^es of remedial cases. Furthermore, only a
relatively small number of methods used by the Toledo teachers have
been described. Nevertheless, it is apparent that these teachers have
accumulated a great deal of valuable information concerning the char-
acteristics of poor readers and appropriate kinds of remedial instruction.
In diagnostic and remedial work which may be undertaken in Toledo
in the future, the studies reported will serve three important purposes:
(a) they will suggest methods of determining the difficulties which
pupils encounter; {b) they will aid teachers in recognizing and classifying
pupils who encounter serious difficulties; and (c) they will suggest
numerous methods of teaching which can be used to advantage in
securing improvement. A clear understanding of any type of instruc-
tion comes through careful studies of the problems which are involved.
It is believed that Toledo teachers have taken a most significant step
by their successful participation in these diagnostic and remedial studies.

The value of the Toledo experiment has been expressed pointedly
by one of the supervisory officers in the following terms: (i) There is
not only increased interest in the study of remedial cases in reading,
but, in addition, teachers are suggesting that similar types of work be
undertaken in spelling and arithmetic. (2) The special teachers have
learned a method of studying individual cases. They are now eager

204 REMEDIAL CASES IN READING

to begin new cases in order to make immediate use of the experience
and information which they have acquired. (3) The attention of the
regular classroom teachers has been called to the need and possibilities
of individual work. They are urging the special teachers to give remedial
instruction to other pupils who need help. As soon as teachers have
concrete evidence of the value of a special type of work, they usually
give their whole-hearted support to it. For this reason it is recommended
that diagnostic and remedial work be started at first in a few centers in
a school system. As the value of this work becomes apparent and as
experience accumulates, similar studies can be started in other schools.
A third value of diagnostic and remedial work is that it calls to the
attention of classroom teachers significant phases of reading which
are frequently given little attention in group instruction, such as the
span of recognition and the eye-voice span. Furthermore, many of
the methods which are organized by special teachers can be used by
classroom teachers in eliminating poor habits which have been acquired
by an entire class or by certain pupils.

INDEX

1

INDEX

Accomplishment Quotient, 27

Accuracy in reading, lack of responsibility

for, 108
Alexia, 14

Anderson, C. J., 6, 8, 17, 21
Apperception, 14
Application: erratic and inadequate, 145;

lack of, 48
Attention, poor, 131

Brain centers, 14
Burgess, May A., 38
Burgess Silent Reading Test, 28
BusweU, G. T., 30, 31

Causes of difiSculty in reading: general,
12-21; in interpretation, 89; in the
mechanics, 128; in all phases, 185;
little or no progress, 61

Concentrate, failure to, 115

Congenital word blindness, 13

Content: failure to direct attention to,
74; inadequate attention to, 16, 97,
108, 152

Courtis, S. A., 38

Courtis Silent Reading Test, 28

Deafness, partial, 40

Development: slow mental, 81; slow

physical, 81
Diagnosis: detailed, 29; preliminary, 27;

technique of, 24
Dyslexia, 13, 51

Educational Age, 27

Educational Quotient, 27

Experience: limited, 152; narrow back-
ground of, 74; narrow range of, 81

Eye-movements: ineffective, 16; records-
of, 31-32

Failure in reading, causes of, 6, 12-21

Form-board, Seguin, 13

Freeman, Frank N., 17, 21

French, W. C, 9

Fundamental habits, failure to establish,

Gates, Arthur I., 38

Gray, C. T., 15, 21

Gray Oral Reading Test, 28

Gray, William S., 6, 10, 21, 38

Guessing, 20

Haggerty Reading Examination, Sigma

I, 28
Hawkins, Florence E., 5, 188, 189

Illinois Intelligence Test, 28

Imagination, over-cultivated, 69

Immaturity, 40

Inattention, 48

Individual cases, study of, 23

Inferior learning capacity, 1 2

Instruction: remedial, 32; significant
statements concerning, 36

Interest in reading, lack of, 19, 45, 48,
121, 137, 172

Interpretation in reading: causes of
failure in, 89; conclusions concerning
remedial instruction for, 89; dif-
ficulties in, 62; exercises to aid in, 34

Johnson, Eleanor M., 9
Jones, R. G., 38
Jones Vocabulary Test, 29
Judd, Charles H., 10, 18, 21, 130

Keener, E. E., 12, 15, 21
Kibbe, Delia, 4

Language habits, immature, 81, 108
Lucas, Laura, 4

McCall, W. A., 12, 22,38

McLaughUn, Katherine, 6, 22

Malnutrition, 45

Mechanics of reading: causes of dif-
ficulties in, 1 28; conclusions concerning
remedial instruction for, 129; dif-
ficulties in, 91

Meek, C. S., 5, 188

Memory: auditory, 14; poor visual, 40

Merton, Elda, 6, 8, 17, 21

Miller, L. W., 4, 25

207

208

REMEDIAL CASES IN READING

Monroe Silent Reading Test, 28
Monroe, W. S., 22, 38
Moss, Gracia, 19

National Intelligence Tests, 30

Nervousness, 45

Nettleman, Flora, 5, 188, 189

Phonetics, inadequate training in, 16

Rate of silent reading: conclusions con-
cerning remedial instruction for, 149;
difficulties in, 130

Reading, careless habits of, 97, 152

Reading experience, limited, 137

Reading history, 26

Recognition: accurate, 20; exercises to
increase span of, 15, 33

Remedial instruction, conclusions con-
cerning, 61, 89, 129, 149, 186

Remedial cases, types of, i-ii, 151

Robinson, J. F., 8

Schmitt, Clara, 6, 22
School history, 25
.___Self -consciousness, 115
Short-exposure tests, 30
Silent reading, rate of, 130
Speech defects, 17-18
Stanford Revision of Binet-Simon .>In-
telligence Tests, 28

Tachistoscope, 30

Tests: Burgess Silent Reading Test, 28;
Courtis Silent Reading Test, 28; Gray
Oral Reading Test, 28; Haggerty
Reading Examination, Sigma I, 28;
Illinois Intelligence Test, 28; Jones
Vocabulary Test, 29; Monroe Silent

Reading Tests, 28; National Intelli-
gence Tests, 30; Stanford Revision of
Binet-Simon Intelligence Test, 28;
short-exposure tests, 30; standardized,
24; unstandardized, 24, 29; Thorn-
dike-McCall Silent Reading Test, 28;
Word Element Test A, 29; Word
Recognition Test A, 29

Thinking, poor habits of, 69, 131, 180

Thoughtful reading habits, failure to
develop, 137

Thorndike, E. L., 22

Thorndike-McCall Silent Reading Test,
28
.-^Timidity, 20, 40

Types of remedial cases: general, 7-1 1;
in interpretation, 62; in mechanics of
reading, 91; in all phases, 1 5 1 ; in rate
of silent reading, 130; little or no
progress, 39

Uhl, W^ L., 22

Vision: bifocal, 91; defective, 15, 97
Vocabulary: inadequate speaking, 17;

limited meaning, 74; a small meaning,

18

Wallin, J. E. W., 13, 22

Willard, G. W., 14, 16, 20

Wilson, Estaline, 5, 188, 189

Word Element Test A, 29

Word recognition, exercises to increase,

34
Word Recognition Test A, 29
Work, careless habits of, 180

Yazer, Margaret, 19
Zirbes, Laura, 22

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